Of High Explosives

UNCLASSIFIED

The Sensitivity

of High Explosives.

by Dave Everest.

Abstract: The Sensitivities of High Explosives depend on a number of factors. These factors are examined.

Issue 1. Dated: 11thJanuary 2008

The right of David Everest to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1998.

Suggestions, information, constructive criticism and corrections are welcome. Please e-mail them to me at:

Amendment List.

1. Introduction………………………………………………………….…. 4

2. Factors that have an effect on the Sensitivity of a givenHigh Explosive……4

3.The effects of the factors on the Sensitivity of a givenHigh Explosive.4

4. Controlling the Sensitivity of High Explosives………………….……..14

5. Acknowledgements……………………………………………….……15

6. References. ………………………………………………………….…15

7. Index. ……………………………………………………………15,16,17

Tables

Table 3.1.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Heat) for a number of Explosives…….. 5

Table 3.2.1. Shock Sensitivity test – drop distance in cm for a 2 kg weight……...6

Table 3.2.2. Figures of Insensitivity (by Impact) for a number of Explosives…....7

Table 3.3.1. Explosion Efficiency for PETN in the presence of grit……………..8

Table 3.3.2. Impact Sensitivity of Mercury Fulminate and Tetrazene in the presence of grit………………………………………………………………………….10

Table 3.4.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Friction) for a number of Explosives…..11

Table 3.5.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Grazing Friction) for a number

of Explosives…………………………………………………………….……11

Table 3.8.1. The height of fall for reliable ignition of the explosive………12

Table 3.9.1. Increasing sensitivity to High Velocity Fragments…………...13

Table 3.10.1. TNT Acceptor Sensitivity in the Air Gap Test…………...... 13

Table 3.10.2. Acceptor Sensitivity in the Air Gap Test using Tetryl Initiating Charges……………………………………………………………………..14

Figures

Figure 3.3.1.1. The Effect of Grit Melting Point on the Friction Explosive Sensitivity of PETN……………………………………………………..………9

Figure 3.3.1.2. The Effect of Grit Melting Point on the Impact Explosive Sensitivity of PETN. ……………………………………………………………9

Figure 3.3.2.1. Impact Sensitivity of Mercury Fulminate in the presence of grit….10

Figure 3.3.2.2. Impact Sensitivity of Tetrazene in the presence of grit……………10

Amendment List

Amendment
number / Affecting paragraph numbers / page numbers / Date of amendment
Draft issue / 11 Jan 2008
1 / Addition of CAS numbers / 19 July 2008
2 / Addition of Abstract on Title page / 11 Sept 2008

1. Introduction.

A sufficiently powerful impact will initiate any given High Explosive. Smaller impacts may or may not cause initiation, depending on the sensitivity of the given explosive to the impact.

The Sensitivity of a High Explosive is defined as the response of the explosive to a relatively small initiating stimulus; some measure of comparison of the probability of initiation of explosives is required so as to determine safety procedures. These procedures are of practical importance during the manufacture, filling, transporting, handling and use of explosives.

In addition, the minimum initiation that is required by a given explosive to cause efficient detonation must also be established.

A Figure of Insensitivity (F.I.) can be quoted for the explosive; the higher the Figure of Insensitivity, the less sensitive is the explosive.

2. Factors that have an effect on the Sensitivity of a givenHigh Explosive.

2.1. The effect of heat on the sensitivity of the explosive.

2.2. The effect of impact on the sensitivity of the explosive.

2.3. The effect of grit on the sensitivity of the explosive.

2.4. The effect of friction on the sensitivity of the explosive.

2.5. The effect of grazing friction on the sensitivity of the explosive.

2.6. The sensitivity of explosives to ignition by flame or flash.

2.7. The sensitivity of explosives to electrostatic sparks.

2.8. The sensitivity of explosives due to adiabatic compression.

2.9. The sensitivity of explosives due to rifle bullets, high velocity fragments and shaped charge projectiles.

2.10. The sensitivity of explosives due to initiation by shock waves.

3.The effects of the factors on the Sensitivity of a givenHigh Explosive.

3.1.The effect of heat on the sensitivity.

3.1.1. All High Explosives liberate large quantities of heat during decomposition. Thus heating can set up local decomposition, leading to self-heating, and finally to explosion.

Heating tests, to determine the sensitivity, are as follows:

3.1.1.1. The rate of temperature rise. (Typically 2 to 5 degrees per minute)

3.1.1.2. The quantity of explosive.

3.1.1.3. Whether the explosive is open or enclosed. Open containers are less liable to promote explosion than closed containers.

3.1.1.4. The purity of the explosive. Impurities such as iron oxide are often found in practice.

3.1.2. Comparative ignition temperatures give information about the relative sensitivity of the explosives.

Table 3.1.1 gives some values of the Ignition temperatures for a variety of explosives.

Table 3.1.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Heat) for a number of Explosives.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / Ignition Temperature (° C)
Ammonium Nitrate / AN / 6484-52-2 / 243 - 361
Ammonium Picrate / AP / 131-74-8 / 275
Barium Azide / - / 18810-58-7 / 152
Cadmium Azide / - / - / 291
Cadmium Fulminate / - / - / 215
Calcium Azide / - / - / 158
Cobalt Azide / - / - / 148
Copper Fulminate / - / - / 205
Cuprous Azide / - / - / 174
Cyclotrimethylene
Trinitramine / RDX / 121-82-4 / 190 – 261
Ethylene Dinitramine / EDNA / 505-71-5 / 184 –254
Ethyl Nitrate / EN / 625-58-1 / 180 – 215
Ethylene Diamine Dinitrate / EDDN / 20829-66-7 / 230 - 357
Lead Azide / - / 13424-46-9 / 327 - 335
Lead Styphnate / LTNR/
TNRS / 15245-44-0 / 250
Lithium Azide(LiN3) / - / - / 245
Manganese Azide / - / - / 203
Mercurous Azide / - / - / 281
Mercury Fulminate / - / 628-86-4 / 145 - 215
Methyl Nitrate / - / 598-58-3 / 210 – 240
Nickel Azide / - / - / 200
Nitrocellulose / NC / - / 90 – 155
Nitroglycerine / NG / 55-63-0 / 90 - 200
Nitroguanidine / NQ / 556-88-7 / 167 - 285
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate / PETN / 78-11-5 / 140 – 220
Potassium Fulminate / - / - / 225
Silver Fulminate / - / 5610-59-3 / 170
Silver Azide / - / 13863-88-2 / 297
Sodium Fulminate / - / - / 215
Strontium Azide / - / - / 169
Tetrazene / - / 31330-63-9 / 160
Tetryl / CE / 479-45-8 / 140 – 170
Thallium Fulminate / - / - / 120
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 275
Zinc Azide / - / - / 289
α dimethylol nitroethane dinitrate / SW1 / - / 134 - 208

The higher the value in Table 3.1.1., the higher the Figure of Insensitivity.

3.2.The effect of impact on the sensitivity.

3.2.1. Sensitivity to direct impact is measured by a weight falling on to a thin layer of the chosen explosive. The height necessary to cause 50% of explosions is found by experiment. The ratio of this height to the height required to explode Picric Acid under the same conditions, multiplied by 100, is given as the Figure of Insensitivity of the explosive.

Table 3.2.1. gives the drop distances in centimetres of a 2 kilogram weight for 50% of explosions to occur.

Table 3.2.1. Shock Sensitivity test – drop distance in cm for a 2 kg weight

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / Drop distance(cm)
Mercury Fulminate / - / 628-86-4 / 2
Nitroglycerine / NG / 55-63-0 / 4
Dry guncotton / NC / - / 5-10
Lead Picrate / - / 25721-38-4 / 5
Guhr Dynamite / - / - / 7
Blasting Gelatine / - / - / 12
Gelatine Dynamite / - / - / 17
Smokeless Powder / - / - / 30-54
Picric Acid / TNPh/TNF
/PA / 88-89-1 / 35-95
Zinc Picrate / - / - / 60
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 57-90
Black Powder / - / - / 85-100
Dinitrobenzene / DNB / 99-65-0 / 120
Nitrocotton (>20% water) / - / - / >180
Ammonium Nitrate / AN / 6484-52-2 / >180

Table 3.2.2 gives some values of the Figure of Insensitivity for a variety of explosives.

Table 3.2.2. Figures of Insensitivity (by Impact) for a number of Explosives.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / Density
(grams/cc) / Figure of Insensitivity
Picric Acid = 100
Amatol 40/60 / - / - / 1.70 / 115
Amatol 80/20 / - / 1.71 / 120
Ammon Gelignite / - / - / 30 - 40
Ballistite / - / - / 15
Cordite M.D. and M.C. / - / 1.58 / 56
Cordite Mk1 / - / 1.57 / 94
Cordite R.D.B. / - / 1.54 / 61
Dichlorodinitrobenzene / - / - / 127
Dinitroaniline / DNA / 97-02-9 / - / >120
Dinitrobenzene / DNB / 99-65-0 / - / 120
Dinitrophenol / DNPh / 51-28-5 / 1.67 / >120
Dry Guncotton / NC / - / 1.67 / 23
Gelignite / - / 5-10
Gunpowder / - / 65
Lead Azide / - / 13424-46-9 / 4.8 / 20
Mercury Fulminate / - / 628-86-4 / 4.43 / 10
Nitroglycerine / NG/RNG / 55-63-0 / 1.6 / 13
Nitroglycerine powder / - / 20 - 30
Pentanitroaniline / PNA / 21985-87-5 / - / 36
Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate / PETN / 78-11-5 / - / 60 - 80
Picric Acid / TNPh /PA / 88-89-1 / 1.77 / 100
Picric Powder / - / - / - / 87
Cyclotrimethylene Trinitramine / RDX / 121-82-4 / - / 25 - 30
RDX/TNT / - / - / - / 80 - 100
Tetranitroaniline / TeTNA / 3698-54-2 / - / 86
Tetranitrobenzene / - / -- / - / 30
Tetryl / CE / 479-45-8 / 1.77 / 70
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 1.68 / 115
TNT powder / - / - / - / 160 - 200
Trinitroaniline / TNA / 489-98-5 / - / 122
Trinitrobenzene / TNB / 99-35-4 / - / 109
Trinitroxylene / TNX/ TNP / 38677-56-4 / - / >120
Wet Guncotton (13% water) / - / - / 1.54 / 120

The higher the value in Table 3.2.1., the higher the Figure of Insensitivity.

3.3.The effect of grit on the sensitivity.

3.3.1. The falling weight test, as used for impact testing, is used for testing the enhanced sensitisation of an explosive, due to contamination by grit. The friction sensitivity test is also used. The explosive is mixed with specific amounts of carborundum, whose melting point is 2730°C. It appears that the grit provides a local hot spot, which leads to self-heating. Some results for PETN are shown in Table 3.3.1 below with a number of different grits. It is found that all grits with a melting point of less than about 400 °C are ineffective in causing an explosion, but grits with a melting point of 430°C or greater are effective in causing an explosion. The effect of grit hardness is not a factor.

The explosion efficiency is defined as:

(The number of explosions / The number of impacts) * 100

Table 3.3.1. Explosion Efficiency for PETN in the presence of grit.

Grit added / Hardness (Mohs scale) / Melting point (°C) / Friction explosion efficiency (%) / Impact explosion efficiency (%)
Nil (pure PETN) / 1.8 / 141 / 0 / 2
Ammonium Nitrate / 2 - 3 / 169 / 0 / 3
Potassium Bisulphate / 3 / 210 / 0 / 3
Silver Nitrate / 2 - 3 / 212 / 0 / 2
Sodium Dichromate / 2 - 3 / 320 / 0 / 0
Sodium Acetate / 1 - 5 / 324 / 0 / 0
Potassium Nitrate / 2 - 3 / 334 / 0 / 0
Potassium Dichromate / 2 - 3 / 398 / 0 / 0
Silver Bromide / 2 - 3 / 434 / 50 / 6
Lead Chloride / 2 – 3 / 501 / 60 / 27
Silver Iodide / 2 - 3 / 550 / 100 / -
Borax / 3 – 4 / 560 / 100 / 30
Bismuthinite / 2 – 2.5 / 685 / 100 / 42
Glass / 7 / 800 / 100 / 100
Rock Salt / 2 – 2.5 / 804 / 50 / 6
Chalcocite / 3 – 3.5 / 1100 / 100 / 50
Galena / 2.5 – 2.7 / 1114 / 100 / 60
Calcite / 3 / 1339 / 100 / 43

Table 3.3.2. Impact Sensitivity of Mercury Fulminate and Tetrazene in the presence of grit.

Grit added / Hardness (Mohs scale) / Melting point (°C) / Mercury Fulminate / Tetrazene
Nil / - / - / 0 / 0
Silver Nitrate / 2 - 3 / 212 / 0 / 0
Potassium Nitrate / 2 - 3 / 334 / - / 3
Potassium Dichromate / 2 - 3 / 398 / - / 0
Silver Bromide / 2 - 3 / 434 / 0 / 31
Lead Chloride / 2 - 3 / 501 / 0 / 30
Silver Iodide / 2 - 3 / 550 / 70 / 80
Borax / 3 – 4 / 560 / 100 / 100
Bismuthinite / 2 – 2.5 / 685 / 100 / 100
Chalcocite / 3 – 3.5 / 1100 / 100 / 38
Galena / 2.5 – 2.7 / 1114 / 100 / 100
Calcite / 3 / 1339 / 100 / 38

3.4.The effect of friction on the sensitivity.

3.4.1. The explosive is spread on to the surface of a horizontal disc. A rod that can be weighted with a variety of weights rests on the disc, which is rotated at a constant speed until the explosive initiates.

Table 3.4.1 gives some values of the Figure of Insensitivity for a variety of explosives.

Table 3.4.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Friction) for a number of Explosives.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / kg (at 0.5 m/sec)
Ammon Gelignite / 30
Gelignite / 4
Nitroglycerine powder / >50
Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate / PETN / 78-11-5 / 10
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / >50
TNT powder / >50

The higher the value in Table 3.4.1., the higher the Figure of Insensitivity.

3.5.The effect of grazing friction on the sensitivity.

3.5.1. A glancing blow that combines friction and impact is given by a "torpedo", typically weighing one kilogram sliding down a plane, inclined at 80° to the horizontal. This strikes the explosive resting on an anvil. The height in centimetres relates to the sensitivity of the explosive.

Table 3.5.1. Figures of Insensitivity (by Grazing Friction) for a number of Explosives.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / cm ( for 1 kg at 80° )
Ammon Gelignite / 40 - 60
Gelignite / 40 - 60
Nitroglycerine powder / >150
Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate / PETN / 78-11-5 / 35 - 40
Cyclotrimethylene Trinitramine / RDX / 121-82-4 / 10 - 20
RDX/TNT / 40 - 45
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 80 - 120
TNT powder / 10 - 120

The higher the value in Table 3.5.1., the higher the Figure of Insensitivity.

3.6.The sensitivity to ignition by flame or flash.

3.6.1. When a naked flame plays on an explosive, not only is there a temperature rise, but free radicals in the flame bombard the surface of the explosive. A "flame pendulum" is used to swing backwards and forwards exposing the explosive to the flame at regular intervals. The number of swings before ignition occurs gives a measure of the sensitivity to flame. There is no correlation between this measure of sensitivity and the ignition temperature. However, there is a correlation with the friction sensitivity.

3.6.2. The explosive in question is subjected to the flash from a measured quantity of gunpowder at decreasing distances until the explosive probability of ignition reaches 50%. The distances for various explosives are a measure of the sensitivity to flash ignition.

3.7.The sensitivity to electrostatic sparks.

3.7.1. Static electricity is easily generated in a variety of operations on explosives. Tests on the ignition of explosives are conducted by discharging a capacitor across a spark gap in which the explosive is placed. The ignition depends on the spark energy. Most High Explosives require a spark energy above 0.02 Joules to be initiated. However, most initiators can be ignited by energies below this limit. The maximum energy of a spark from static electricity generated by a human being in the British climate is of the order of 0.02 Joules.

3.8.The sensitivity due to adiabatic compression.

3.8.1. Particles of explosive are surrounded by gas, and if this gas is suddenly compressed, the gas temperature will rise to the possible ignition point of the explosive. Table 3.8.1. shows the height of fall of an 226.8 gram (eight-ounce) weight needed to reliably ignite the explosive.

Table 3.8.1. The height of fall for reliable ignition of the explosive.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / Height of fall (cm)
Gunpowder / - / - / 30.5
Lead Styphnate / LTNR/
TNRS / 15245-44-0 / 25.4
Picric Acid / TNPh/TNF
/PA / 88-89-1 / 63.5
Tetryl / CE / 479-45-8 / 50.8
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 76.2

The higher the value in Table 3.8.1., the higher the Figure of Insensitivity.

3.9.The sensitivity due to rifle bullets, high velocity fragments and shaped charge projectiles.

3.9.1. The physical state of the explosive determines the probability of explosion due to the impact of high velocity fragments. Crystalline explosives are more likely to be initiated than cast explosives.

3.9.2. There are a number of different potential types of initiation. First, due to the initial impact on the external casing (Impact Shock), next the generation of heat as the fragment traverses the explosive (Bow Wave Shock) and finally the fragment could induce adiabatic compression as it strikes the far side of the casing (Terminal Shock).

3.9.3. Table 3.9.1. shows increasing sensitivity to High Velocity Fragments.

Table 3.9.1. Increasing sensitivity to High Velocity Fragments.

Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS#
Ammonal / - / -
Cast TNT / TNT / 118-96-7
Cast Tetryl / CE / 479-45-8
PETN/oil / - / -
RDX/oil / - / -

3.10.The sensitivity due to initiation by shock waves.

3.10.1. A given explosive (the Acceptor Charge) is subjected to a shock wave from a charge of explosive (the Initiating Charge), with an air gap between the two charges. The Acceptor charge may or may not detonate, and the gap for 50% detonations is calculated.

3.10.2. One problem is that the detonation of the Initiating Charge projects a shock wave, a flame and particles into the Acceptor Charge.

3.10.3. Table 3.10.1. shows the air gap for 50% detonations of a 75 gram, 3.175 cm diameter, TNT Acceptor Charge pressed to a density of 1.54 grams/cc, for a variety of Initiating Charges. Each Initiating Charge weighed 75 grams and was also 3.175 cm diameter.

Table 3.10.1. TNT Acceptor Sensitivity in the Air Gap Test.

InitiatingCharge Explosive / Abbreviation / CAS# / Density (grams/cc) / Gap for 50% Initiation(cm)
Trinitrotoluene / TNT / 118-96-7 / 1.54 / 3.18 – 3.81
Tetryl / CE / 479-45-8 / 1.58 / 5.18 – 6.35
Cyclotrimethylene Trinitramine / RDX / 121-82-4 / 1.56 / 10.16 – 10.48
Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate / PETN / 78-11-5 / 1.56 / 11.43 – 11.75

3.10.4. Table 3.10.2. shows the air gap for three successive detonations

using a 113 gram, 3.175 cm diameter Tetryl Initiating Charge on 113 gram 3.175 cm diameter Acceptor Charges of a variety of explosives.

Table 3.10.2. Acceptor Explosive Sensitivity in the Air Gap Test

Acceptor Explosive / CAS# / Density (grams/cc) / Air Gap (cm)
Cast TNT / 118-96-7 / 1.6 / 0.13
Cast TNT/Tetryl / - / 1.6 / 1.27
Cast Picric Acid / 88-89-1 / 1.7 / 1.91
Pressed TNT / 118-96-7 / 1.5 / 3.18
Pressed Tetryl / 479-45-8 / 1.5 / 4.44
Crystalline TNT / 118-96-7 / 0.97 / 6.99
Crystalline Picric Acid / 88-89-1 / 1.06 / 10.16
Crystallised Tetryl / 479-45-8 / 0.95 / 13.02

The larger the Air Gap, the more sensitive the explosive.

4. Controlling the Sensitivity of High Explosives.

4.1. It may be necessary to make a High Explosive less hazardous by desensitisation. Alternatively, it might become necessary to increase the sensitivity to allow an explosive to become more easily initiated.

4.2.1. The classic case of desensitising of a High Explosive is the production of dynamite by the absorption of nitroglycerine into kieselguhr - a diatomous earth. Nobel discovered in 1866 that a 75/25 mixture of nitroglycerine in kieselguhr to make Dynamite No 1 produced a much less sensitive explosive. Pure nitroglycerine has an Impact Figure of Insensitivity of 13 (see Table 3.2.1), whereas the equivalent Figure of Insensitivity of Dynamite No 1 is about 23. Later, a 93/7 nitroglycerine /collodion cotton mixture was manufactured to make Blasting Gelatine, which has an Impact Figure of Insensitivity of about 39.

4.2.2. Desensitisation can be mechanical, physical or chemical.

In mechanical desensitisation, a lubricant is incorporated, such as wax into PETN. This allows the heat, which would otherwise be developed in the slip planes of the explosive crystals during impact, to be largely nullified.

Physical desensitisation allows the heat developed in hot spots around grit particles to be absorbed by melting layers of wax in the explosive.

Chemical desensitisation adds compounds that are used to destroy the auto-catalysts that occur in the intermediate products of decomposition. This has not been used extensively as this phenomenon occurs infrequently.

4.3. Increasing the sensitiveness is of practical importance in initiator compositions. Mixing a grit in the explosive, for instance glass powder in antimony sulphide/potassium chlorate mixture, increases the sensitivity of cap compositions.

5. Acknowledgements.

5.1. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the authors of the publications in the references, below, from which the data for this paper has been abstracted.

6. References.

6.1. "Science of Explosives" by C.E.H Bawn and G. Rotter.

6.2. "Textbook of Explosives used in the Service". No Author.

6.3. "High Explosives and Propellants" by S.Fordham.

7. Index.

UNCLASSIFIED

α dimethylol nitroethane dinitrate (SW1)5

Acceptor Charge...... 13

adiabatic compression...... 12

Air Gap Test...... 14

Amatol 40/60...... 7

Amatol 80/20...... 7

Ammon Gelignite...... 7, 11

Ammonal...... 13

Ammonium Nitrate...... 5, 6, 8

Ammonium Picrate...... 5

antimony sulphide...... 15

Ballistite...... 7

Barium Azide...... 5

Bismuthinite...... 8, 10

Black Powder...... 6

Blasting Gelatine...... 6, 14

Borax...... 8, 10

Bow Wave Shock...... 13

Cadmium Azide...... 5

Cadmium Fulminate...... 5

Calcite...... 8, 10

Calcium Azide...... 5

Chalcocite...... 8, 10

Chemical desensitisation.....14

Cobalt Azide...... 5

Copper Fulminate...... 5

Cordite M.D. and M.C...... 7

Cordite Mk1...... 7

Cordite R.D.B...... 7

Cuprous Azide...... 5

Cyclonite (RDX)...... 5

desensitising...... 14

Dichlorodinitrobenzene...... 7

Dinitroaniline...... 7

Dinitrobenzene...... 6, 7

Dinitrophenol...... 7

Dry Guncotton...... 7

Dynamite No 1...... 14

EDNA...... 5

electrostatic sparks...... 12

Ethyl Nitrate...... 5

Ethylene Diamine Dinitrate....5

explosion efficiency...... 8

falling weight test...... 8

flame or flash...... 12

friction...... 11

Galena...... 8, 10

Gelatine Dynamite...... 6

Gelignite...... 7, 11

Glass...... 8

grazing friction...... 11

grit...... 8

Guhr Dynamite...... 6

Gunpowder...... 7, 12

Heating tests...... 4

high velocity fragments...... 13

impact...... 6

Impact Shock...... 13

Initiating Charge...... 13, 14

kieselguhr...... 14

Lead Azide...... 5, 7

Lead Chloride...... 8, 10

Lead Picrate...... 6

Lead Styphnate...... 5, 12

Lithium Azide...... 5

Manganese Azide...... 5

mechanical desensitisation....14

Mercurous Azide...... 5

Mercury Fulminate..2, 5, 6, 7, 10

Methyl Nitrate...... 5

Nickel Azide...... 5

Nitrocellulose...... 5

Nitrocotton...... 6

Nitroglycerine...... 5, 6, 7, 11

Nitroguanidine...... 5

PETN...... 2, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14

Physical desensitisation...... 14

Picric Acid...... 6, 7, 12, 14

Picric Powder...... 7

Potassium Bisulphate...... 8

potassium chlorate...... 15

Potassium Dichromate.....8, 10

Potassium Fulminate...... 5

Potassium Nitrate...... 8, 10

RDX...... 5, 7, 11, 13

rifle bullets...... 13

Rock Salt...... 8

shaped charge projectiles.....13

shock waves...... 13

Silver Azide...... 5

Silver Bromide...... 8, 10

Silver Fulminate...... 5

Silver Iodide...... 8, 10

Silver Nitrate...... 8, 10

Smokeless Powder...... 6

Sodium Acetate...... 8

Sodium Dichromate...... 8

Sodium Fulminate...... 5

Strontium Azide...... 5

Terminal Shock)...... 13

Tetranitrobenzene...... 7

Tetranitroaniline...... 7

Tetrazene...... 2, 5, 10

Tetryl...... 2, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14

Tetryl (CE)...... 5

Tetryl (CE)...... 7

Thallium Fulminate...... 5

TNT....2, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14

Trinitroaniline...... 7

Trinitrobenzene...... 7

Trinitroxylene...... 7

Wet Guncotton...... 7

Zinc Azide...... 5

Zinc Picrate...... 6

UNCLASSIFIED

Of High Explosives

The right of David Everest to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1998.

Contents