Mr. Tuccillo AP Government
Chapter 9
Nominations and Campaigns
Objectives:
1.Students will be able to discuss the two types of campaigns in American politics – nomination campaigns and election campaigns.
2.Students will be able to describe the role of campaign strategy in winning a nomination to elective office.
3.Students will be able to identify the general characteristics of presidential candidates.
4.Students will be able to describe and evaluate the caucus and primary methods of delegates selection.
5.Students will be able to contrast the American primary system of nomination with those of other nations such as Great Britain.
6.Students will be able to trace the historical evolution of national party conventions as nominating vehicles for presidential candidates.
7.Students will be able to consider the ways that high-tech campaigning has changed the nature of American politics.
8.Students will be able to identify the key actions that candidates must accomplish in order to effectively organize their campaigns.
9.Students will be able to examine the growth of PACs and their impact on modern campaigning.
10.Students will be able to assess the crucial role of money and technology in American campaign organizations.
11.Students will be able to analyze the role the media play in influencing the style and substance of presidential campaigns.
12.Students will be able to discuss the three effects that campaigns have on voters: reinforcement, activation, and conversion.
13.Students will be able to evaluate whether the “openness” of the American style of campaigning leads to a more democratic system or a less democratic system of government.
14.Students will be able to assess whether or not American presidential elections lead to an increased scope of government.
Outline:
I.The Nomination Game:
A.nomination: the official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party
1. anyone can participate in the this
2.success usually requires money, media attention, and momentum
B.campaign strategy: the master game plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign
C.Deciding to Run:
1.campaigning is very strenuous and stressful and many able people decide not to run for office because of this
2.in most countries, campaigns last no longer than 2 months (Britain is 5 weeks) however, in the U.S. a presidential
candidacy needs to be either announced or an “open secret” for at least a year before the election
3.presidential candidates need to be risk takers; they need enough self-confidence to put everything on the line in
pursuit of the presidency
4.rarely has someone tried to be president without holding a key political office first
a. 80% have been either Senators, Representatives, or governors
D.Competing for Delegates:
1. the goal of the nomination game is to win the majority of delegates’ support at the national party convention
2. national party convention: the supreme power within each of the parties; the convention meets every four years to nominate the party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party’s platform
3. from February through June of election year, the individual state parties choose their delegates to the national convention through caucuses or primaries
4. The Caucus Road:
a. caucus: a meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention
1. all states used to have caucuses; now only a dozen still do
2. caucuses are open to all voters who are registered with the party
3. caucuses are usually organized like pyramids – starting at the local level and moving up to the state convention
4. Iowa’s occurs first in the nominating season
5. The Primary Road
a. today, most of the delegates to the national conventions are selected in presidential primaries
b. presidential primaries: elections in which voters in a state vote for a candidate (or delegates pledged to him or her)
1. primaries were done originally to try and take power away from party bosses
c. primaries did not really take off until after the 1968 Democratic Convention
d. McGovern-Fraser Commission: a commission formed at the 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representation
1. all delegate selection procedures were required to be open – states began to use primaries for this purpose
e. superdelegates: National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the Democratic national party convention
1. this was done to give more power to party leaders
f. primary season begins in winter in New Hampshire
g. frontloading: the recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention
h. Super Tuesday: a day in March where a large number of southern states hold their primaries
6. Evaluating the Primary and Caucus System: political scientists and commentators have a number of criticisms
a. a disproportionate amount of attention goes to the early caucuses and primaries
1. critics think America’s media-dominated campaigns are distorted by early primaries and caucuses
b. running for the presidency has become a full-time job, and prominent politicians find it difficult to take time out from their duties to run
c. money plays too big a role in the caucuses and primaries
1. some people drop out of the race because of their inability to raise money
d. participation is low and is not representative of the voting population
1. although 50% of the population votes in November presidential elections, only 20% cast ballots in presidential primaries
2. voters in primaries and caucuses also tend to be better educated and more affluent than voters in general
e. primaries and caucuses exaggerate regional factors in decision making
f. the system gives too much power to the media
7. The Primary and Caucus system also has powerful defenders, including many of the candidates themselves
a. George Bush has written that the system “bring presidential candidates into contact with the flesh-and-blood world”
b. even losing candidates support the process – Senator Paul Simon argues that is best to start the race in small state where people can meet the candidates face-to-face
8. Proposals for national and regional presidential primaries
a. national primary: a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries , which who would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year
1. length and costs of the campaign would be reduced, and concentration of media coverage on this one event would increase political interest and public understanding of the issues involved
b. critics of the national primary respond that a national primary would almost inevitably require a runoff election between the top two finishers to avoid having a candidate win with only a plurality of the vote
1. big money and intense attention from the national media would become more crucial than ever, and obscure candidates would never have a chance
c. regional primaries: a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region
9. The convention send-off
a. the “drama” has now been largely drained from conventions, as the winner is usually a foregone conclusion
1. the preferences of delegates selected in primaries and open caucuses are known before the convention begin
2. the last time there was a question of who would get a nomination was in 1976 when Ford barely defeated Regan
b. today’s conventions are carefully scripted to present the party in its best light
c. conventions are a significant rallying point for the parties
d. typical convention
1. Day 1: keynote speaker – recalls party heroes, condemns the opposition party, and touts the nominee apparent
2. Day 2: party platform: a political party’s statement of its goals and policies for the next four years
a. the platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate’s strength
3. Day 3: formal nomination of candidate
a. there are planned speeches and demonstrations
b. ends with a roll call
4. Day 4: nomination of vice-presidential candidate
a. speeches by those nominated
II. The Campaign Game:
A. in political campaigns, candidates allocate their scarce resources of time, money, and energy to achieve political objectives
1. once nominated all attention is turned to the November election
B. campaigning today is an art and a science and is heavily depended on technology
C. The High-Media Campaign
1. today, television is the most prevalent means used by candidates to reach voters
a. some candidates have even passed out ten minute videos of themselves rather than hand out the traditional pamphlets
b. half of a campaign budget is spent on television ads
c. people argue both ways as to the benefit of television
1. some people claim that they learn more from TV ads than from the news
2. the internet is also quickly becoming a widely used tool for campaigns as well
a. direct mail: a high-tech method of raising money for a political cause or candidate involving the sending of information and requests for money to people whose names appear on lists of those have supported similar views or candidates in the past
1. this was pioneered by Richard Viguerie (conservative fundraiser)
2. this mailing list allows a candidate to pick almost any issue and write a list of people concerned about it
3. virtually every decision made on the campaign trail is determined by the media impact it will get
a. news organizations usually do not go into a lot of detail about the candidates stances on issues, but rather the campaigns themselves and how they are being run and what will happen next
b. three ingredients are needed to project the right image to the voters: campaign organization, money, and media attention
D. Organizing the Campaign: to effectively organize their campaigns, candidates must succeed in numerous key areas
1. get a campaign manager to run your campaign
2. get a fund-raiser
3. get a campaign counsel: with all the federal regulations, a legal assistance is essential
4. hire media and campaign consultants: people that can get you the most exposure for your money
5. assemble a campaign staff
6. plan the logistics: scheduling events and tours across the country
7. get a research staff and policy advisors: helps candidates keep up to date on current issues
8. hire a pollster: keep tabs on how voters are feeling
9. get a good press secretary: makes sure good news is being given to reporters
III. Money and Campaigning
A. campaigns are expensive, and they are growing more so in America’s high-tech political arena
1. candidates need money to build a campaign organization and to get the message out
2. there is a common perception that money buys votes and influence
3. in the early 1970s, momentum developed for campaign financing reform
a. the Common Cause and the National Committee for an Effective Congress led the drive for reform
B. Federal Election Campaign Act: 1974 law passed for reforming campaign finances
1. it created the Federal Election Commission: a six-member bipartisan agency which administers the campaign finance laws and enforces compliance with their requirements
2. provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections
a. people donate through their tax forms
3. limits presidential campaign spending – if they accept federal support they have to limit their spending
a. $35 million for primaries and $80 million in general election
4. required disclosure – all people running must file reports with the FEC listing who contributed and how the money was spent
5. limited contributions – individuals may only contribute $1000 to a campaign
a. Buckley v. Valeo, 1976: Supreme Court said you could not limit the amount people could contribute to their own campaigns (Perot - $60 million)
C. Soft Money: political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grassroots level or the generic party advertising (because of a 1979 amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act)
1. since the money does not go to a particular candidate, there are no contribution limits
2. critics like Senator McCain argue that people in the past who have made large contributions have gotten government positions and also it allows interest groups and corporations to make large contributions
D. Impact of Federal Election Campaign Act
1. campaign spending reforms have made campaigns more open and honest
2. small donors are encouraged, and the rich are restricted in terms of the money they can give directly to a candidate
3. all contributions and expenditure records are open, and FEC auditors try to make sure that the regulations are enforced
E. The Proliferation of PACs
1. the campaign reforms also encouraged the spread of political action committees
2. Political Action Committees (PACs): funding vehicles, created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms, in which a corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the Federal Election Commission, which will meticulously monitor the PACs expenditures
a. a PAC is formed when a business association, or some other interest group decides to contribute to candidates whom it believes will be favorable toward its goals
1. they collect money from stockholders, members, and other interested parties
2. they can donate up to $5000 per candidate in both the primary and general elections
b. also because of Buckley v. Valeo, they can spend unlimited amounts if it is used for activities that are not coordinated with the campaign
c. in 2001 the FEC said there were 3,907 PACs and in the most recent elections they contributed some $212 million to House and Senate candidates
1. PACs play a major role in paying for expensive campaigns
3. critics of PACs believe that this has led to a system of open graft – they fear that the large amount of money controlled by PACs leads to PAC control over what the winners do once they are in office
a. example of National Association of Automobile Dealers
4. others say most PACs give money to candidates who already agree with them
a. also with presidential campaigns the impact is even more doubtful because these campaigns are subsidized by the public and also presidents have well-articulated positions on most important issues
F. Are Campaigns Too Expensive?
1. every four years, Americans spend over $2 billion on national, state, and local elections
a. this seems like a lot of money, but is actually not compared to the amount of money spent on other items of less importance
2. many American officeholders feel that the need for continuous fund-raising distracts them from their jobs as legislators
3. some feel that public financing of congressional campaigns would solve these problems
a. it would be difficult to get Congress to agree to equal financing for the people who will challenge them for their seats
b. incumbents would most likely not want to lose their advantage of raising more money than challengers
G. Does Money Buy Victory?
1. money is crucial to electoral victory
a. in this era of high-tech politics, pollsters, public relations people, direct-mail consultants, and many other specialists are crucial to a campaign
2. perhaps the most basic complaint about money and politics is that there may be a direct link between dollars spent and votes received
a. others say this is not so
3. Herbert Alexander refers to “the doctrine of sufficiency” to describe the idea that it is more important to have “enough” money than to have “more” money – enough to compete effectively but not necessarily more money than the opponent
IV. The Impact of Campaigns
A. all politicians figure that a good campaign is the key to victory, however, many political scientists disagree
B. researchers say that campaigns have three effects on voters
1. reinforcement: campaigns can reinforce voters’ preferences for candidates
2. activation: campaigns can activate voters, getting them to contribute money or become active in campaigns
3. conversion: changing voters’ minds
C. research has shown that campaigns usually reinforce and activate and very rarely do they convert
D. several factors tend to weaken campaigns’ impact on voters
1. most people pay relatively little attention to campaigns in the first place
a. people have a remarkable capacity for selective perception
b. selective perception: the phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predisposition
2. factors such as party identification – though less important than they used to be – still influence voting behavior regardless of what happens in the campaign
3. incumbents start with a substantial advantage in terms of name recognition and an established track record
E. these factors do not mean that campaigns never change voters’ minds or that converting a small percentage is unimportant