NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCIENCE EDUCATION BREAK THE COST BARRIER
Vermaak, I, Cedar College of Education, South Africa.
Bradley, J D. RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 11-13 September 2003
INTRODUCTION
It is widely accepted that efficient teaching of Physical Science is of the greatest importance for the economic and technological growth and development in any country1. At present, schools in developing countries, do not provide sufficient numbers of students in science-related fields. In sub-Saharan African countries the crisis in science education is reflected by a low pass rate and a lowpopularity of the subject, especially amongst girls. Similar problems occur in science education in most developing countries: science education is characterised by teacher and textbook domination, lectures, note giving, memorisation, lack of class practical work and poor understanding of scientific methods2-3. The lack of practical experience in science education is a growing concern worldwide. Even at university level, difficulties are evident; almost everywhere the burden of providing practical experiences for increasing numbers of students in a context of increasing costs of chemicals and equipment, is felt, in addition to the safety and environmental considerations4. It is well documented and widely accepted that “learning Science” involves “doing Science”. Without hands-on activities, the science learner is distanced from subject materials and lacks perspective as to the day-to-day relevance of the subject.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
A solution to the above-mentioned situation is to be found in the hand-size laboratory system. It is based on the concept of an individual student kit, comprising of a number of simple, inexpensive plastic items. Some of these are routinely used in clinical laboratories, while others are specially designed items produced locally, virtually unbreakable, easily portable and re-usable. With a fraction of the normal costs for equipment or building a traditional laboratory, large numbers of learners can perform individual experiments in an ordinary classroom.
Experiments were re-designed and a system, comprising of the individual kit, student's worksheets, teacher's guides and pre-prepared solutions, developed to address the problems facing teaching and learning of practical science. This hand-size laboratory system furthermore supports the under-qualified teacher, lacking confidence or technical assistance to perform experiments. Furthermore, the pupil’s kit allows for learners to take ownership of the equipment, take it home where it could have far reaching implications, especially in rural communities. Through the hand-sized laboratory, science is brought closer to the broader public; this could help to de-mystify science and technology, making them more accessible and understandable in an entertaining way.
As the system includes teacher’s resource packages and ready-made chemicals, the burden on the teacher is lifted. No more set-up and clear up for practical work: each learner performs the experiment at his or her own desk with the accompanying worksheet. Science practical sessions have never been so easy!
The potential users are people around the globe involved in the teaching and learning of science. Primary schools, secondary schools, Colleges of Education, Technical Colleges, Technicons and Universities alike, would benefit by using this cost-effective and efficient approach.
BENEFITS
The hand-size laboratory is cost-effective in terms of maintenance, as well as in terms of the small volumes of chemicals employed and the minimum facilities needed. Some of the important features of this approach are the unique learning experience, and the hands-on opportunities that allow them to make meaning for themselves. Furthermore, it is time and space effective; experiments can be carried out with a minimum of preparation time, experimental procedure and clean-up time, while only a small space is required to set them up. At the same time, it is safe, due to the small volumes of chemicals used and it is environmentally friendly, as waste disposal is drastically cut.
RESEARCH
If time, effort and funds are to be spent on practical work, research-based evidence of its impact on learning and understanding of science subject matter is required, as well as positive attitudes to this alternative method. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate this new system in schools
i)to determine whether the engagement of learners with the hand-size laboratory increased their understanding of certain concepts; and
ii)to determine their attitude regarding this approach.
The sample in this research was representative of the diversity of the South African school population. It varied from those with well-equipped laboratories to those where resources were extremely inadequate. Aspects like different cultural background, geographical location of the school (e.g. urban, township, rural) and gender were taken into account.
The sample consisted of 30 schools: 733 Grade 11 pupils (448 males and 285 females) completed the attitude questionnaire, while 685 Grade 11 pupils (424 males and 261 females) completed the questionnaires on subject understanding. A total of 2118 experiments were performed with the micro-scale equipment.
Experiments dealt with the following topics:
- Le Chatelier’s Principle: An Equilibrium reaction (effects of concentration and temperature)
- Making of an Electrochemical Cell
- Rates of Reaction (effect of concentration)
- Preparation of Hydrogen Sulphide and reaction of Hydrogen sulphide with (i) Potassium Dichromate; and (ii) Metal Salts
- The Reduction of Copper Oxide to Copper
Given the diversity of schools included, it was decided to evaluate the micro-scale approach on its own merits in an attempt to minimise the effect of other variables. The teachers’ intervention was therefore excluded with regard to the five experiments being researched. Teachers were instructed not to do any theoretical background, discussion or demonstration of experiments before allowing learners to work individually at their own pace, applying the worksheets and performing the experiments, within the time constraints imposed by different time-tables and school class periods.
Although the worksheets were designed in a structured format, it was by no means a ‘cookbook recipe’. Clear instructions were needed because this was a novel experience to all learners, some of whom who had never done any practical work before. The worksheets were original and learner-centred, starting with a focus question that did not indicate what the outcome of the experiment would be. Worksheets did include some basic information where it was considered essential. Questions were strategically incorporated in the instructions to ensure active involvement and to guide learners in making specific observations while performing the experiment. Worksheets were given to each learner, as well as a complete set of pre-prepared chemicals and the micro-scale equipment kit needed to perform these experiments.
To evaluate what was learnt by means of the microchemistry experience, the formulation of questions was limited to the subject matter that was directly dealt with by means of the practical experience. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive levels was used to classify the questions, varying between the first three levels: knowledge / recall, comprehension and application
To account for the variety of experiences regarding the chosen experiments and the diverse school situation, identical pre- and post-tests were administered immediately before and immediately after the performance of each experiment. Separate questionnaires on subject understanding and attitude were administered. The pre-tests provided information about learners’ prior knowledge of selected parts of the topic and their perception of practical work respectively. The difference in score between the pre- and post-tests was an indication of the effect of the practical work, at least for the immediate period.
DATA ANALYSIS
i) Subject knowledge and understanding
The percentages of correct answers for each question were determined. The extent to which the solution rate on any question differed between the pre- and post-test, or between two groups (e.g. boys and girls, different cultural groups) can be expressed as an effect size value. The effect size index employed in the present analysis is discriminability, the d' statistic traditionally used in signal detection analysis5 meta-analytic reviews and in quantitative comparative performance studies6. A summarized version of results is given in Tables 1 & 2.
ii) Attitude survey
The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) was used to process the data. A factor analytic study was carried out and seven factors emerged. Four of these factors relate to practicals in general while three factors relate directly to micro-scale equipment. [Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha, as well as the Spearman-Brown formula was employed for internal-consistency measures of reliability. Reliability values for the seven factors vary between 0,525 to 0,645.] Tests of statistical significance included Analysis of variance, T-tests and Scheffé-tests.
Without going into the detail of the seven factors, results are summarized in Table 3.
RESULTS
i)Subject knowledge and concept understanding
Pupils significantly improved their concept understanding on certain topics as a result of time spent on micro-scale practical work.
Overall, no significant differences were found between boys and girls or between different cultural groups. Irrespective of pupils’ background or prior knowledge, they equally improved their subject understanding as a result of micro-scale experimentation. Differences in performance were found regarding pupils from different geographical areas.
ii)Attitude
The overall results revealed a very strong positive attitude to practical work in general; the initial positive attitude was even further strengthened after the micro-scale experience.
qOn average scores, no differences were found between boys’ and girls’ attitude. Different cultural groups, however, as well as groups from different geographical areas, showed significant differences.
RELATED RESEARCH
Macro-scale vs. micro-scale
The individual microchemistry kits were introduced in Chemistry 1 Practicals at University level7 (including students, demonstrators, lab manager and lab technical assistant.) A pilot comparative study was undertaken between the normal macro-scale experiments and the micro-scale version in four experiments. The general attitude towards the micro-scale experiments was found to be positive across all types of individuals involved in Chemistry 1 lab work. All concerned appreciate the greater safety of small-scale work and that experiments can be completed more quickly. Students found that using the micro-scale equipment demanded more of their attention than using the macro-scale equipment. Evidence was found of greater knowledge gains from the small-scale work. The greater attention the micro-scale requires might account for this phenomenon. Salomon8 has drawn attention to the differential outcomes from television (an ‘easy’ medium) and from print (a ‘tough’ medium) and a similar phenomenon might be applicable here.
Micro-scale experimentation vs. theoretical teaching
Research done by Bradley and Motaung9 in the Vaal Triangle with Grade 11 Chemistry pupils proved what is generally expected with hands-on experiences: the group that was exposed to individual experimentation showed a significant improvement in conceptual understanding of selected chemistry concepts, compared with the group that was taught theoretically. This is in line with the provocative opinion of Cawley10 for first-level university Chemistry courses: “if it comes to a choice between lecture and laboratory, I must opt for the laboratory without the lecture… for pedagogical and philosophical reasons.”
[The laboratory represents the experimental component, which we believe could be satisfied also by the hand-sized laboratory.]
OUTCOMES TO DATE
The micro-science system was designed with the needs of South Africa in mind11, but in full awareness that it might suit the needs of other developing countries. Both UNESCO and IUPAC have recognised for many years the problems regarding the provision of practical experiences in most countries. With their support in the location of donor funding, the RADMASTE microchemistry kit has been introduced to more than 60 countries by means of workshops or pilot projects.
Many of these countries are poor and their initiation of pilot projects represents a commendable effort to improve science education in very adverse circumstances. Furthermore, it opens up possibilities for home-school pupils and a solution to the dilemma of science practical work in distance education. The access of the majority to personal experiences in chemistry, no longer constrained by the need for a traditional laboratory, holds promise of a revolution in chemistry education worldwide.
LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES
In many circles there is still the aspiration for the traditional laboratory. Scientists should be made aware of alternative approaches and be encouraged to challenge old educational assumptions. Potential users should be made aware that low-cost is not equal to low quality.
There are amongst some science teachers, initial doubts and fears that the equipment is too small for the students to handle or for them to see what is happening. These concerns, however, are dispelled once they are given the opportunity to handle the equipment themselves. They soon learn to use it without difficulty and find the system very user-friendly. The miniature equipment and the ease with which it is handled, are features that specifically attract female users.
In most developing countries, a dominant teacher-centred (authoritarian) classroom methodology still prevails at present. This is in contrast with what the hand-sized laboratory system emphasises. The key point is a learner-centred methodology where opportunities are provided to develop individual skills and competencies. In the science classroom it surely translates into hands-on practical experiences for all learners.
CRITIQUE
One of the criticisms against the micro-system is the fact that it is not related to the macro-scale used in industry. While we agree, we nevertheless argue that even the experiments performed in a traditional laboratory are not on the scale of industry. It is first and foremost about understanding the concepts, and developing general, safe manipulative skills. Furthermore, research and development and quality control in industry are mostly done on a micro-scale.
Another area of criticism is the opinion that the experiments done by the micro system are less quantitative. Quantitative work is, however, only required for certain objectives at secondary school level. Most objectives can be achieved with semi-quantitative work.
The observation that ‘small quantities leave no margin for error’ is valid, but it is also true that the experiment can be repeated without investing too much time and materials. Precision and accuracy are some of the skills we would like our learners to achieve and the micro-scale techniques provide exactly those kinds of opportunities.
CONCLUSION
1.The research indicated evidence that subject understanding improved as a result of the individual hands-on experiences.
2.Micro-scale chemistry practical work was positively accepted as an effective tool in teaching and learning.
3.Boys and girls from previously disadvantaged groups, achieved an outcome at least equal to those of traditionally privileged groups.
4.Comparable benefits for both boys and girls were achieved through the micro—scale chemistry intervention.
5.Learners from ‘township’ schools, showed the best improvement of subject knowledge after the micro-scale intervention, while learners from rural schools showed lesser progress.
6.Micro-scale experimentation requires more precision, accuracy and closer observation; students find it more demanding of their attention than using macro-scale equipment; on certain experiments, greater knowledge gains were found with the micro-scale equipment comparing with macro-scale experiments.
7.Teachers appreciate the simplicity of the system and find it neat and user-friendly. Competent teachers design their own experiments.
8.Micro-chemistry techniques might need more publicity and advocacy; clients need to know that micro-laboratory procedures are routinely used in a number of fields.
The hand-sized laboratory system not only breaks the cost barrier to provide hands-on practical experiments for all learners, it enhances concept understanding, interest and motivation, irrespective of background, culture or gender. Individual hands-on practical chemistry is not within reach of just a select privileged few.
[Note: The research and proposal, “Effective Science Education Breaks the Cost
Barrier” was awarded a Discretionary Grant at the International Innovation Grants Competition by Merrill Lynch & Co. Inc in New York City on January 20, 2000.]
REFERENCES
1.UNESCO (2000). World Conference on Science – Science Agenda: Framework for Action. Paris:UNESCO.
2.ZYMELMAN, M. (1990) Science, Education and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank, Washington, DC.
3.LEWIN, K. (1992) Science Education in Developing Countries: Issues and Perspectives for Planners. International Institute for Educational Planning: Paris.
4.BRADLEY, J D. (2001) The UNESCO/IUPAC-CTC Global Programme in Microchemistry. Pure and Applied Chemistry 73(7), 1215 – 1219.
5.McNICOL, D. (1972) A Primer of Signal Detection Theory. George, Allen & Unwin, London.
6.WALDING, R., FOGLIANI, C., OVER, R., BAIN, JD. (1994) Gender differences in Response to Questions on the Australian National Chemistry Quiz, Journal of Research in Science teaching, 31(8):833-846.
7.BRADLEY, J D., HUDDLE, P A., SEBUYIRA, M. (2001) A Trial introduction of RADMASTE Microchemistry Kits in Chemistry 1 Practicals at the University of the Witwatersrand. Internal report based on Sebuyira, M (2000), unpublished MSc Research Report, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
8.SALOMON, G. (1984) Journal of Education Psychology 76:647-658.
9.MOTAUNG, M J. (2003) Unpublished M.Sc Research Report. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
10.CAWLEY, J J. (1992) Lecture or laboratory? Journal of Chemical Education. 69(8):642
11.BRADLEY, J D and Vermaak, I (1996) Microscale Chemistry from an African Perspective. Proc. 14th Int. Conf. On Chemical Education, Brisbane, (ed. WF Beasley) 100-107.
TABLE 1 RESULTS ON CONCEPT UNDERSTANDING