Is there a relationship between language aptitude and vocabulary size?
Graduation Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of
English Language and Literature
Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Arts
by
Misaki Watanabe
2015
Contents
Abstract
Chapter 1: Aptitude and English ability
1.1 Inroduction2
1.2 What is L2 learning?3
1
1.3 Aptitude3
1.3.1 What is aptitude3
1.3.2 Number Learning5
1.3.3 Phonetic Script5
1.3.4 Spelling Clues5
1.3.5 Words in Sentences6
1.3.6 Paired Associates6
1.3.7 The comparison of two aptitude6
1.3.8 LLAMA test8
1.4 The importance of vocabulary9
1.5 Ways to assess a learner’s language ability11
1.5.1 Formal tests11
1.5.2 Informal tests12
1.5.3 Advantages of formal tests12
1.5.4 Problems with assessing students with formal tests13
1.6 What do we know about the relationship between aptitude and language ability?13
1.7 Research questions14
1.8 Chapter Summary15
Chapter 2: Experiment
2.1 Introduction16
2.2 The Experiment17
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment17
2.2.2 Method17
a) Subject17
b) The experiments17
c) Procedure19
2.3 Results19
2.3.1 Subjects’ aptitude20
2.3.2 Subjects’ English level20
2.3.3 The relationship between subjects’ aptitude and vocabulary size21
2.4 Summary22
Chapter 3: Discussion
3.1 Introduction23
3.2 Summary of the results from the experiments23
3.3 Discussion of the results24
3.3.1 Analysis of the relationship between aptitude and English ability24
3.3.2 Analysis of variation between the subjects for aptitude for L226
3.4 Implications27
3.5 Limitations of the Experiments27
3.6 Further research28
3.7 Conclusion29
Reference30
1
Abstract
Today, it is not uncommon for people to speak English. English is called “International Language”. A lot of Japanese can go abroad for travel or on business easily, so they have to master English and use it with foreign people. However, there are people who are good at learning English and are poor at doing it. There also is a big gap difference of English ability between students even they start learning English from the same time and with the same teacher. The experts say these three factors cause the gap; the teachers, the textbook and the learners. The most important factor is the learners, and they cannot change their aptitude even though they can change their motivation or learning style. What is aptitude? Is there a relationship between the learner’s aptitude and English learning?
In Chapter One, we looked at LLAMA test and the vocabulary size test. LLAMA test can measure the subjects’ aptitude for learning English, and the vocabulary size test can measure their knowledge of word familiesy. We decided to focus on vocabulary learning because it is the most important to when mastering English. Then, in Chapter Two, we looked at the results of two experiments. The 24 subjects took two tests and we found they had higher scores on both of tests from their scores than the average.
In Chapter Three, we compared the two results in detail and discussed about the relationship between aptitude and English ability.We expected the higher score they had on the LLAMA test, the higher score they could take on the vocabulary size test, however, the results from two experiments showed us that there is no relationship between aptitude and English vocabularyknowledge.ability
.
1
Chapter 1: Aptitude and English ability
1.1 Introduction
Today, the world is becoming more globalized. Most people think we must learn English and it is natural to use English even if our language is not English, because English is the “International Language”. Also Japanese can easily go overseas for studying or traveling, and watch foreign dramas or movies. For that, Japanese have become more interested in learning English to communicate with foreign people. Now, students can learn English at school, and many adults go to English conversation school for their business or overseas travel. Many parents make their children study English before their children enter junior high school. We have to understand English and use it from now on in Japan, too.
There are each thoughtmany different ideas aboutfor learning English. Some people like learning English. The others dislike learning English. Some people are good at learning English. The Oothers are poor at learning English even though many people have actually studied English since they were elementary school students. ThenSo, why do people have the different feelings for English? Recently, 4th grade university students are searching for their jobs from next spring and they have to take aptitude tests for many times. People have their own aptitude for each job and employers emphasize the result of the tests. Therefore, aptitude must relate to learning English, too. So, we will research aptitude and English ability in this thesis. One important question is whether there is a relationship between language aptitude and English ability? Moreover, is there a personal gap of each aptitude for L2? In this chapter, we will look at general ideas of aptitude.
1.2 What is L2 learning?
Second Language Acquisition is the scientific study what kind ofof the mechanisms which helps language learning. In this case, Second Language contains “foreign language” we learn English or Chinese in Japan, and “second language” people whose language is not English learn English in America. SLA is studied in both of the environments.
Some students succeed in learning L2. The others do not do. When the students who take get a bad score on English tests are asked the reasons why they do not succeed in learning English, they answer “I do not like English.”, “I could not keep up with the classes.”, “I am dull.”,,” “I am good at math and science.”, “I do not like the teacher who teach me English at first.”. All students start learning English at the same time, but there are big gaps of each students’ English ability. People think there are three reasons for this. One is the gap of teachers – character, ability, sex, age and the quantity of experience. The second is textbooks – items to learn and skill. The third is learners’ individual gap – age, character, learning aptitude, motivation and sex. EThe experts think the most important reason for the success for learning English is the reason for learners. Learners cannot change their teachers and textbook when they learn English, but they can change themselves. In this thesis, we will focus on aptitude above all things, because we have it from our birth and we cannot change it though we can change motivation for learning English. Now, we will look at aptitude.
1.3Aptitude
1.3.1 What isaptitude
Aptitude means one’s natural ability or talent. It is in contrast to achievement which represents knowledge or ability that is gained. Language aptitude directly means talent or ability for second language learning. Carroll (1973) said the universal personal equation of aptitude existed because there was the personal gap even though the learners’ mother tongue was different. He also said the aptitude was not sensitive about education or training.
There are some reasons which are based on personal equation when we learn a foreign language well except age. The experts especially think the aptitude for learning it is the most important. The aptitude is comparatively stable, and they is scarcelythought to change during their life. People say “he or she has a remarkable aptitude for languages.”, however, this “languages” is ability in learning languages, and this is the very aptitude for learning languages. Thus, there are people who are cut out for learning language and people who are not cut out for that. Actually, the experts recognize that Learning Disabilities in America, and there are students who can learn other subjects but cannot do foreign language.
Now, how do people investigate more scientific aptitude? At first, Carroll & Sapon (1959) began to sort people who are cut out for learning language and then, they examined the interrelation between aptitude and learning results. This is called Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT). There are some tests which can examine the language aptitude, but MLAT is the most popular because MLAT makes a point of materialistic ability than theoretical construction to sort people who are cut out for learning them. MLAT is constituted of the five subtests – Number Learning, Phonetic Script, Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences and Paired Associates. We will look at these five subtests with each exercise.
1.3.2 Number Learning
At first, we can listen to strange language numbers for English number and learn the correspondence. We can only listen to the strange language numbers and we have to write English number for them.
e.g.) “ba” is “one” “baba” is “two” “dee” is “three” “tu” is “twenty” “ti” is “thirty”
1. ti-ba 2. ti-dee 3. baba 4. tu-dee
1.3.3 Phonetic Script
We listen to the pronunciation, looking at spelling of four words. We can only listen to one word of four words and choose the correct answer.
e.g.) 1. bot but bok buk 2. bok buk bov bof 3. geet gut beet but
1. “buk” 2. “bok” 3. “gut”
1.3.4 Spelling Clues
We recognize the disguised English words spelled approximately as it is pronounced. We can choose one of the five words beneath it that corresponds most closely in meaning to the disguised words.
e.g.1) klozA. attire B. nearby C. stick D. giant E. relatives
e.g.2) restruntA. food B. self-control C. sleep D. space explorer E. drug
1.3.5 Words in Sentences
We choose the word which has the same function as first sentence from second sentence.
e.g.) MARY is happy.
From the look A on your faceB, IC can tell that you mustD have had a bad day.
1.3.6 Paired Associates
We have to memorize the list of the 24 corresponds strange language and English words in two minutes.
e.g.) si?…wood k?ab…hand kab…juice bat…ax
1. bat A. animal B. stick C. corn D. ax E. stone
2. kab A.juice B. cart C. corn D. tool E. run
1.3.7 The comparison of two aptitude
MLAT is composed by these five subtests. However, Carroll (1962) showed the theory of language aptitude which composed four elements – Phonemic coding ability, Associative memory, Grammatical sensitivity and Inductive language learning ability.
1. Phonemic coding ability: the ability which recognizes strange phonetic material and keeps into long-term memory
2. Associative memory: the ability which connects mother tongue words and goal language ones and memorizes
3. Grammatical sensitivity: the ability which recognizes grammatical function in sentences
4. Inductive language learning ability: the ability which generalizes the rules from language materials
Figure 1: Details of MLAT
The subtests / Constitutional elements which Carroll thought / The capable ability1. Number Learning / Associative memory / (Inductive language learning ability)
2. Phonetic Script / Phonemic coding ability / Remembrance
3. Spelling Clues / Phonemic coding ability / Vocabulary
4. Words in Sentences / Grammatical sensitivity / Grammar
5. Paired Associates / Associative memory
However, there are two problems; one is whether the five subtests can determine all of four aptitude elements, and the second is whether each subtest becomes the pure measure of the four elements. At first, a lot of experts have pointed the subtest which measures Inductive language learning ability is not composed. Winke (2005) said Number learning of MLAT measured it, but we cannot say each subtest determines it sufficiently. Skehan (1998) thought each subtest was not the pure measure of the four elements on second problem; for example, Phonetic Script of MLAT determines both of Phonetic coding ability and memory. Then, we will look at the chart about the relationship between subtests of MLAT and aptitude elements.
According to this chart, there are a few tests which measure Phonemic coding ability and Associative memory, but there are no elements which do Inductive language learning ability.
MLAT has some problems like that, but people use these subtests. Some experts say MLAT is the most influential aptitude test though it has been more than forty years since MLAT was published.
1.3.8 LLAMA test
LLAMA test is the one of MLATs and we will use LLAMA test to examine the subjects’ aptitude for learning English. It has grown out of a series of projects carried out by students of English Language and Linguistics at University of Wales Swansea. The materials are a set of exploratory tests designed to assess aptitude for learning foreign languages. The tests are loosely based on pioneering work by John Carroll, but over many years people have been running these projects, and the design of the tests has significantly diverged from the originals which they were based. Their first attempt at works appeared as Meara, Milton and Lorenzo-Dus (2002). That publication included a set of five tests, unimaginatively named Lat_A, Lat_B, Lat_C, Lat_D and Lat_E. The most successful tests were Lat_B which was a test of vocabulary learning, Lat_C which was a test of grammatical inference, and Lat_E, which was a test of the sound-symbol associations. Lat_A which was a self-test of phonetic memory and Lat_D which was a test of memory for unusual sound sequences, were less satisfactory.
Since the publication of MM&L-D in 2002, people have been surprised by how much interest these tests generated in the research community. A number of colleagues asked people whose first language was not English if it would be possible to adapt the tests for them, and this resulted in Swedish, Hungarian and French versions of the tests. However, they subsequently got requests from Japan, Greece, Russia and Georgia to produce versions of the test in languages which the Roman alphabet are not used. Their attempts to rework the program code to cope with these problems which were not entirely successful. An additional problem that developed as part of the original tests expanded was that some of the materials developed as part of the 2002 tests contained materials loosely based on Polish, and on Turkish. These languages are notrecognized widely in the UK, but of course, they are more familiar to test-takers whose L1 is Hungarian or Azeri. These problems prompted them to develop a version of the tests which was a large extent independent of the L1 of the test-takers. LLAMA tests are the result of this work.
1.4 The importance of vocabulary
We used LLAMA test to examine subjects’ aptitude for learning English. Above all, we used Llama_B which is a test of vocabulary learning because we focus on vocabulary learning. It is very important to learn a lot of vocabulary when we study L2 because we cannot use English well if we do not know words. Even if we do not know grammar of L2, we can speak L2 with vocabulary. Ono (1994) showed vocabulary ability proved L2 ability and we could measure our language ability from vocabulary in search about bilingual. Language learning ability which is needed to help progress in English learning and thought, is the language ability corresponded to our age. However, in Japan it is not clear that how to learn vocabulary of L2 and the difficulty of learning L2 for learners. Recently experts study about vocabulary learning, but Nagatomo (1999) insisted the study of Japanese vocabulary learning was uncultivated. On the other hand, since the feature article about vocabulary learning was composed (Studies in Second Language acquisition 1987), L2 learning became notable in foreign country. (Wesche & Paribakht 1999) As a result, these four points are studied deeply.
1. the systematic vocabulary learning using keyword and the word list with translation
2. the incidental vocabulary learning which the learners acquire new words through reading and listening
3. when the learners acquire new words, how do they use the clue from the contexts and guess the meaning?
4. the learner’s communicative strategy which the learners use when they meet the strange words during their communications
Many vocabulary tests have been invented, and the tests are divided into two groups; the size which we measure how many words we master, and the depth which we measure how detailed we understand one word. Above all things, they are divided into Receptive Vocabulary and Productive Vocabulary, and the test which can measure each ability have been made. It is ideal to measure learner’s ability exactly with some vocabulary tests for measuring complex vocabulary knowledge, however, this is not realistic because time when we learn English is limited. Then, which is more important to master English, the size or the depth? Meara (1996) and Read (2000) thought it was more important for learners to measure their vocabulary size. Therefore, we will use the vocabulary size test to measure the subjects’ English ability.
For measure subjects’ English ability, we use the vocabulary size test. The test was designed to estimate the size of their current vocabulary knowledge, not their knowledge of individual words. The test has 140 questions which match English words and Japanese translations, so we can measure our vocabulary size purely.
1.5 Ways to assess a learner’s language ability
1.5.1 Formal tests
There are some formal tests which can measure our language ability. The one of them is Test for English for International Communication which is called TOEIC. It is common all over the world and can measure our communications skill in English by listening and reading widely. There are three kinds of tests; TOEIC bridge test, TOEIC test and TOEIC SW test. TOEIC has three features; the standard for constant evaluation, the global standard and the general evaluation of communication skill in English. First, TOEIC is evaluated by from 10 to 990 score not by passing or failing. The score is done statistical transaction to keep the standard for evaluation constantly, so the score is kept constantly unless our ability changes. Secondly, people in about 150 countries take TOEIC test. The questions which ask the original cultural backgrounds or expressions are excluded, so the score in TOEIC is the world common standard. Finally, TOEIC can measure ability for communicate in English from close contents to business, not one for translate Japanese into English and vice versa.