Making Identical Reference

Making Identical Reference:

An Accessibility Perspective

by

Wu Meiyu

Under the Supervision of

Professor Chen Xinren

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Arts

English Department

School of Foreign Language Studies

Nanjing University

April 2005

Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to show my heartfelt thanks to those who have contributed a lot to my study.

First of all, I owe indebtedness to my supervisor, Professor Chen Xinren, who has helped me throughout the various stages of the development and revision of this thesis. He has patiently read several drafts of my paper and offered me many valuable suggestions and also corrected a lot of errors. It was right under his patient guidance and constant encouragement that this paper could take its present shape.

I feel particularly grateful to Professor Ting Yenren and Wen Qiufang, who gave me many insightful suggestions on the design and improvement of my study. Their careful instruction has contributed a great deal to my thesis writing.

My special thanks also go to my classmates who gave me valuable advice, and to all the teachers who offered their great help throughout the process of my thesis completion. Without their support my thesis would not have completed.

The last but not the least thanks go to my mother and my husband who showed great concern about my thesis writing. In a word, I am thankful to all those who lent support to me in my research and writing process, and I myself take final responsibility for my error inadequacy in this thesis.

W.M.Y

ABSTRACT

Making Identical Reference:

An Accessibility Perspective

Wu Meiyu

Based on the examination of how Chinese EFL learners and native college students use referring expressions targeting at the same referents in written texts, this paper seeks to find out how Chinese EFL learners may differ from native college students in terms of pragmatic awareness by comparing the degrees of accessibility signaled by the topic-related anaphoric expressions they use in their English compositions.

Chinese EFL learners’ and native college students’ compositions on same topics in which topic-related anaphoric expressions were used were selected as the data, from which 8 categories of anaphoric expressions were recognized. These 8 categories fall into two general categories: full NP forms and pronominal forms. The frequency of each category was computed and analyzed in terms of text position and writer-type. The quantitative analysis generated the following major findings:

1) In Chinese EFL learners’ writing, the forms of topic-related anaphoric expressions cover 6 categories: zero pronouns, personal pronouns, proximal demonstrative + NP, definite descriptions, nouns, and proper names. In native college students’ writing, the forms of topic-related anaphoric expressions cover 7 categories: zero pronouns, possessive pronouns, personal pronouns, distal demonstrative + NP, definite descriptions, nouns, and proper names.

2)  In Chinese EFL learners’ writing, topic-related anaphoric expressions of the low accessibility type (i.e. full NP forms) were frequently used not only when the distance between the antecedent and the referring expression is long but also when it is short.

3)  Likewise, in native college students’ writing, topic-related anaphoric expressions of the low accessibility type (i.e. full NP forms) were also frequently used not only when the distance between the antecedent and the referring expression is long but also when it is short.

4)  Both Chinese EFL learners and native college students used full NP forms much more frequently than expected when the distance between the antecedent and the referring expression is short, suggesting the two groups still suffer from lack of adequate pragmatic awareness in terms of accessibility.

Considering that no such factors as the need for emphasis are found at work upon textual and contextual analysis, it can be argued that both groups have problems in some way with the use of referring expressions (or accessibility markers) as cohesive ties. The violation of the accessibility scale is largely due to their failure to properly evaluate the accessibility of the referent to their addressee.

This study can provide some guidance for EFL classroom teaching and learning. For one thing, it helps promote language learners’ understanding of the concept of reference and the principles and mechanisms of the appropriate use of referring expressions in specific text positions. For another, this study can enrich Ariel’s Accessibility Theory by providing the empirical evidence for reference variation with text position differences.

摘要

基于可及性理论的同指研究

本文旨在通过考察中国英语学习者与英语本族语大学生在作文中回指语篇话题时对指称词语的使用情况，从可及性程度这一新的角度切入，对比研究了两组作者的语用意识，从而对外语教学特别是写作教学提供相关建议。

本研究选用了部分中国英语学习者与部分英语本族语大学生所写的同题文章作为语料。首先，从语料中识别出了八类出现频率较多的话题回指表达。为了方便讨论，研究者将其进一步分为两大类：名词短语与代词短语。然后，将这些话题回指表达从语篇位置以及作者类别两个方面进行统计。最后计算了话题回指表达在这两个方面的使用频率。通过对语料进行定量的研究分析，得出以下主要结论：

1. 在中国英语学习者的作文中，话题回指表达包括：零代词、人称代词、指示词＋名词、有定描述、名词和专有名词；在英语本族语大学生的作文中，话题回指表达包括：零代词、物主代词、人称代词、指示词＋名词、有定描述、名词和专有名词。

2. 在中国英语学习者的作文中，低可及性的名词短语的使用最为普遍，不仅是在长距离的篇章位置，在短距离的篇章位置中同样如此。

3. 在英语本族语大学生的作文中，低可及性的名词短语的使用也较为普遍，不仅是在长距离的篇章位置，在短距离的篇章位置中同样如此。

4. 从语篇位置来看，名词短语和代词短语在两组作者的写作中的使用频率差异同样显著。这说明语篇中多数本应使用高可及性回指表达（代词短语）时，两组作者都倾向于使用低可及性的名词短语。各种话题回指表达类别在两组作者的写作中的使用频率差异不是很大。

由于在相关语篇位置上不存在诸如强调等方面的特殊考虑，因此，从整体上看，中国英语学习者和英语本族语大学生在话题回指表达的可及性认知方面存在一定程度的欠缺。具体地说，之所以出现指称词语的选择违反可及性的情况，很大程度是因为他们没有意识到或没能足够意识到指称词语的可及性，从而导致语篇中的衔接错误。

本研究对二语课堂教学有一定的指导作用，有助于语言教师和学生更好地理解回指的概念以及恰当准确使用指称词语的原理和机制。另一方面，本研究为可及性理论提供了又一个体现其解释力的例证。

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………...... ii

English Abstract ……………………………………………….……...……………...iii

Chinese Abstract…………………………………………………………………...... vi

List of Tables ..…………………………………………………………………...... xi

Chapter One Introduction ………………...…………………………………………...1

1.1 Object of the Study …………………………………………………………...1

1.2 Need for the Study …………………………………………………………...3

1.3 Significance of the Study …………………………………………………….4

1.4 Outline of the Present Study………………………………………………….5

Chapter Two Literature Review ………………………………………………………7

2.1 Discussion of Some Basic Concepts…………………………………………7

2.1.1 Identical Reference and Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions ………7

2.1.2 Accessibility……………………………………………………………8

2.1.3 Discourse Factors Affecting Accessibility of Antecedents …….…....10

2.2 Relevance Theory and Accessibility …………………..………….……..…11

2.3 Related Studies ……………………………………………………………...14

2.4 Summary…………………………………………………………………….15

Chapter Three The Theoretical Framework ….…………...………………………....17

3.1 Accessibility Theory ……………………………………………………...... 17

3.2 Accessibility Hierarchy ……………………………………………………..20

3.3 Identification and Classification of Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions ..21

Chapter Four Methodology ………………………………………………………….24

4.1 Research Questions …………………………………………………………24

4.2 Data Source………………………………………………………………….25

4.3 Data Collection ……………………………………………………………..25

4.4 Method of Analysis …………………………………………………………27

Chapter Five Results and Discussion ………………………………………………..29

5.1 Kinds of Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions ……………………………29

5.2 General Distributional Pattern of Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions…..30

5.3 Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions in Each Group’s Writing …………..32

5.3.1 Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions in Chinese

EFL Learners’ Writing in Terms of Text Positions ...…..………….32

5.3.2 Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions in Native College

Students’ Writing in Terms of Text Positions ...…………..….....…34

5.4 Problems with the Two Groups’ Use of Topic-Related Anaphoric

Expressions in Short Distances …………………..…………...... 35

5.5 Initial Reference to the Discourse Topic at the Beginning of

a Paragraph ………………………….……….…………………....38

5.6 Cognitive Status of Referring Expressions as Cohesive Ties ...... …………39

5.7 Summary …………………………………………………………………..41

Chapter Six Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...42

6.1 Summary of the Study ………………………………………………………42

6.2 Major Findings of the Study ………………………………………………..43

6.3 Implications of the Study …………………………………………………...44

6.4 Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research ……………46

References……………………………………………………………………………48

Appendix 1 The Passage Titled Love Written by Aaron …….………………………52

Appendix 2 The Passage Titled Love Written by Chinese Johnson …………………53

List of Tables

Table 1: General Distributional Pattern of Topic-Related Anaphoric

Expressions in Terms of Text Positions…………………………………….30

Table 2: Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions in Chinese EFL

Learners’ Writing in Terms of Text Positions ...... …...….33

Table 3: Topic-Related Anaphoric Expressions in Native

College Students’ Writing in Terms of Text Positions ……………………..34

Table 4: The Two Groups’ Error Rate in the Use of Low-Accessibility

Markers in Short Distances.....……………………...... …...….36

Chapter One

Introduction

This chapter consists of four sections. The first section introduces the object of this study. Section Two deals with the need for the present study. Section Three discusses the significance of the study. Finally the layout of this thesis is presented.

Object of the Study

One of the interesting facts about human language is that we can use different forms to refer to the same thing, and the same form to refer to many different things. Yet people can manage to understand one another. In any form of discourse, for successful communication, the addresser must first enable addressees to identify the entities mentioned in the discourse by using appropriate referring expressions (or references). An addresser who uses a definite referring expression presupposes that a mental representation of the entity being referred to exists (or can be constructed) in the addressee’s mind. According to Gundel et al (1993:275), it is widely recognized that the form of referring expressions, like other aspects of language, depends on the assumed cognitive status of the referent. A multiplicity of considerations guides the addresser when choosing a referring expression. It is impossible to imagine a sentence that does not make reference in some form. Even Chinese EFL learners’ writings are no exception in this matter.

With the Accessibility Theory proposed by Ariel (1988, 1990, 1991) as the present analytical framework and on the basis of Chinese EFL learners’ and native college students’ data on the use of topic-related anaphoric expressions, the present study endeavors to achieve the following goals.

The first goal is to identify and classify topic-related anaphoric expressions in Chinese EFL learners’ and native college students’ writings respectively. Different types of referring expressions are to be identified and investigated. It is expected that the present study will identify the topic-related anaphoric expressions usually used in the writing of EFL learners and native college students.

The second goal is to explore the frequencies of topic-related anaphoric expressions in different text positions. This approach is different from those of the previous studies in that the latter generally ignore the special features of references in EFL learners’ writing, and most of them focus on academic or journalistic discourses. It is expected that the present study will help to show to what extent Chinese EFL learners and native college students are different in the use of topic-related anaphoric expressions, and specifically, in different text positions.

The third goal is, through careful analysis and elaboration of reference-making in different text positions, to reveal the differences in the way topic-reference-making is employed in different text positions and some possible factors underlying such differences from the perspectives of Accessibility Theory. It is hoped that the present study will provide some information and suggestions for EFL learners in the use of topic-related anaphoric expressions.

Need for the Study

This study attempts to examine Chinese EFL learners’, compared with native college students’, cognitive status of accessibility of referring expressions, especially topic-related anaphoric expressions.

First, it aims to examine Chinese EFL learners’ writing from the perspective of Ariel’s Accessibility Theory. Broadly speaking, as stated by Ariel (1991), the question posed by Accessibility Theory is how context is brought into use while processing sentences. Assuming that mental representations are not equally accessible to addressees at any given stage of the discourse, she has suggested (Ariel 1988, 1990) that context-retrieving expressions, referring expressions being among them, are in fact accessibility markers. These markers are specialized, such that each points to a different degree of memory availability. Focusing on referring expressions, the claim is that addressees are guided in antecedent retrievals by considering the degree of accessibility signaled by the marker, rather than by noting the contextual resource. Therefore, it appears necessary to have a close examination on how Chinese EFL learners, compared with native college students, use topic-related anaphoric expressions signaling various accessibility degrees.

Second, the researcher tries to provide ideas for written-English classroom teaching and learning in China. It has been learned that learners’ fluency increases year by year, but not their accuracy. The development of some cognitive features such as cohesion has fallen far behind that of their overall English proficiency and fluency. Therefore, it appears necessary to have a close examination on how learners convey their ideas using topic-related anaphoric expressions to achieve discourse cohesion in their written texts.

In addition, this study will testify and also complement the findings of previous research in the field. The literature review shows some lacunae in the previous studies. No study considered the frequency of topic-related anaphoric expression occurrence in different text positions, and the present one will go so far as to analyze text positions to the length of, say, two sentences between the referent and the antecedent within a paragraph. What is more, EFL learners’ topic-reference choice in their writing, especially compared with native college students’, is still a virgin land in this area for no previous study has ever touched upon it. My study will also cover a wider range of potential factors influencing different writers’ topic-reference choice.

Significance of the Present Study

A review of the existing literature reveals that the discourses in most previous studies tend to be academic or journalistic. Few concerned EFL learners’ cognitive status of accessibility. Therefore, it would be rewarding to carry out such studies to examine both the EFL learners’ and native college students’ use of referring expressions. On the whole, the significance of the study is shown in the following respects.

Pedagogically, it will help promote language teachers’ and learners’ understanding of the concept of accessibility and the principles and mechanisms of the appropriate topic-reference choice and therefore it provides ideas for L2 classroom teaching and learning. The L2 teachers need more empirical evidence on how to arrange class to instruct learners to improve their writing ability, and here specifically, their ability to use appropriate topic-related anaphoric expressions to achieve cohesion.

Theoretically, this study will provide evidence from the perspective of EFL learners’ writing for or against the universality of Ariel’s Accessibility Theory, which holds that distinct nominal categories (pronouns, and full noun phrases, etc.) are used to signal differences in the accessibility or retrievability of their referents within a given context (Ariel 1988, 1990; Gundel et al. 1993). The study of EFL learners’ topic-reference choice in their writing, especially compared with native college students’, will supply new evidence to the explanatory power of the theory.

Outline of the Thesis

The present thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the object, need, and significance of this study. Chapter Two, Literature Review, explores the concept of accessibility as well as some related research. Chapter Three, the Theoretical Framework, presents some key terms related to this study and the theoretical framework to be adopted, namely the Accessibility Theory. Chapter Four describes the methodology of this study in detail, including research questions, corpus description, data collection and data analysis. Then follows the Chapter of Results and Discussion, the most important chapter in this study. The last chapter summarizes the major findings of the research, proposes some implications, and points out the major limitations. Suggestions for further study will also be presented in the last chapter.