Localised learning, new learning spaces and small business learning
EERA conference Hamburg, 20th September 2003
Stephen Billett, Griffith University, Australia
This paper examines how the learning of new practices occurs in small businesses. Using an analysis of how small businesses learnt to implement a nationally-legislated goods and service tax (Billett, Ehrich & Hernon-Tinning 2002), this paper identifies and elaborates the role played by localised support in: (i) developing an understanding of a new practice (i.e. a taxation system;(ii) its implications for the particular small business; and (iii) providing assistance with the implementation, monitoring and refinement of small business operators’ and workers’ capacity to ultimately enact the practice independently. It also identifies the key role played by the agentic actions of the small business operators, which was largely premised on their interest in what has to be learnt. Together, with the localised support this action constituted instances of learning spaces that are distinct and remote from the provision of taught courses within educational institutions. These interactions suggest the need for a broadened conception of what constitutes legitimate learning situations and pedagogic practices.
Small business and vocational education
Assisting the vocational development of small business workers and operatives has long been identified as problematic for vocational education and training (VET) systems. Small business reluctance to participate in structured training to the same degree as larger enterprises is well acknowledged and represents a social and economic disadvantage to small business workers (Gibb 1998). However, small businesses often claim that existing VET provisions are inappropriate, ill-focussed and inaccessible. Small business operators suggest that small businesses are not small big businesses. Hence, their needs are different from those catered to in national modularised VET courses. Also, the size and distribution of small businesses does not align well with the marketised provision of VET courses, where economies of scale are favoured. In all, there seems to be a misalignment between existing provisions of vocational education and the needs of small business.
This paper examines how the learning of new practices for small business occur through support that constitutes localised learning spaces. Using an analysis of how small businesses learnt to implement a nationally-legislated goods and service tax (Billett, Ehrich & Hernon-Tinning 2002), this paper identifies and elaborates the essential role played by localised support in developing an understanding of the taxation system, its implications for the particular small business, assistance with the implementation, monitoring and refinement of small business operators’ and workers’ capacity to ultimately enact it independently. It also identifies the key role played by the agentic actions of small business operators, which was premised on their interest in what have to be learnt. Together, with the localised support this action constituted instances of learning spaces that are distinct and remote from the provision of taught courses within educational institutions.
Only very low earning Australian enterprises were exempt from administering the GST on behalf of the government and the forwarding quarterly Business Activity Statements (BAS) to the Australian Tax Office. Therefore, most small businesses had to learn how to administer and enact the GST and BAS, to comply with government mandates. This presented a possibly unique opportunity to understand how a number of small businesses managed the same learning task. The investigation comprised, firstly, developing 30 case studies of how small businesses of different sizes and focuses of activities, learnt to implement and enact the GST. From the case studies, a tentative model of small business learning was generated. This model was then appraised by a further 15 small businesses who were also asked to evaluate its capacity to account for other instances of learning new practices in their small businesses. In overview, the data in both phases of the investigation illuminated the relations among the workplace, local communities and local affiliations in the learning and extension of knowledge for work. However, while the implementation of the GST presented a ‘fixed variable’ in the form of the need to enact similar processes, the inquiry revealed differences across these enterprises in the scope of the learning task, the readiness of operators and staff to engage in this learning and the approaches to develop the capacities required to comply with the mandated taxation practices. For some small businesses, it meant little change, for others it required the adoption of systematic and/or electronic administrative practices, possibly for the first time, which required extensive new learning. Nevertheless, there was considerable consistency in the overall learning process and the kinds of contributions that were most valued. It was found that local support provided by other small business operators, other local affiliations (e.g. friends, family and acquaintances) that provided trusted and pertinent advice, experts and, importantly their understanding of the particular small businesses’ requirements and readiness were central to how the learning for this innovation proceeded towards the goal of independence with the use of this practice.
From the analysis, some tentative pedagogic bases and practices were identified by which learning for and in small business proceeds and might be better supported. These include the movement from a reliance on sources external to the small business towards a greater independence in acting. In particular, the developing capacity to act independently to implement the GST was often premised on learning mediated by localised sources of support. The qualities of localised contributions providing guidance included an understanding of the enterprise and what the GST meant to the particular enterprise, and how ready it was ready to independently implement the required procedures. However, much of the support provided to the small businesses would not be recognised as orthodox pedagogic practices, suggesting the need to extend conceptions of these practices.
In a tentative response to this challenge, this paper attempts to theorise a view of learning spaces that are not bounded by either practices in educational institutions or workplaces, but are constituted by localised communities in ways that assist learning premised on shared concerns, spaces and practices, and the agentic actions of the learners. These learning spaces are held to reflect complex relations and practices that are remote from those enacted deliberately for learning, in educational institutions and workplaces. Nevertheless, the potential of the spaces suggests the worth of some re-consideration of how learning arrangements for work and working lives might be considered. The procedural concerns extend to how these learning spaces can best be enacted to assist and enrich the learning in workplaces, both small and large. Moreover, there is identified a need to extend the conceptions and practices of vocational education beyond those that are privileged by the institutional requirements of vocational colleges, schools and universities. Instead, consideration of learning processes that reflect requirements beyond these institutions needs to be brought center stage.
To present, elaborate and discuss these issues, the paper commences with a brief review of what is already known about learning in small business, particularly from an Australian perspective. The review highlights a preference of small business towards workplace learning rather than for taught, credentialed nationally-accredited training of the kind typically offered by the vocational education and training (VET) sector. Next, the paper describes the procedures used to gather and analyse the data. Following this, the model of learning for small business that was identified and verified through this research is presented. Finally, some consideration of new conceptions of learning spaces are then discussed.
Learning in and for small business
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines ‘small businesses’ as being those with less than 20 employees. These include ‘micro-businesses’ employing less than 5 employees, as well as ‘own account’ workers or self-employed, owner/operators of small businesses with no employees. Small businesses contribute significantly to the level of national economic activity and employment. About half of all private sector employment in Australia is provided by small businesses, which account for around 97 per cent of all private sector businesses (ABS 2000). However, over half of these businesses have no employees other than the operator. Therefore, a large portion of small business operative’s concerns will be about personal skill levels and development (Kempnich et al 1999). This suggests that these individuals might have quite different needs and aspirations than those who are seeking employment and advancement in businesses owned by somebody else. For instance, the need for credentials, around which so much of vocational education and training provisions are based, may be of limited importance to small business operators. Also, the nature and size of small businesses mean their organisational characteristics and skill development needs are quite different than larger enterprises (Barrera & Robertson 1996, Kearney 2000). These factors may well contribute to the apparent widespread disaffection by small business with taught courses offered by VET institutions.
Small business and taught courses
Small business commitment to structured VET is quite weak. This does not to mean that small business employees do not participate in structured entry-level training programs, such as apprenticeships. For instance, many apprentices (particularly in trades such as hairdressing, restaurant work and plumbing) are likely to be employed by small businesses. However, outside of this trade preparation, the data consistently reports that small business owners are reluctant to participate in or sponsor their employees’ participation in taught courses offered through the VET system (Billett & Cooper 1998, Coopers and Lybrand 1995, Gibb 1997). There are at least four identifiable reasons why these courses seem to be unattractive to small businesses. Firstly, these courses often deny the reality of small business, instead usually reflecting large business or ‘industry needs’. For instance, small business management courses are criticized for their use of big business management theory and practice that is quite inappropriate for small business workplaces (Kempnich et al 1999). Small businesses are not little big businesses as they have different operational norms, practices and needs.
Secondly, courses that conform to national industry prescriptions may be of limited interest. As such they may lack a focus on or pertinence to the kinds of outcomes needed by small business. Central to this concern is the idea that what constitutes effective performance in workplace settings are likely to be highly situational, not nationally consistent (Billett 2001a). Consequently, course goals need to address situational requirements, rather than skill needs that represent an aggregation of national industry needs. Of course there is a complication here. Small business workers may want courses leading to national certification with learning outcomes that are portable across workplaces. Yet, it seems that the requirements of addressing specific enterprise needs are so compelling that unless the content of these courses is sensitive to these needs, many small business workers will be denied the opportunity to participate in these courses or secure any certification that arises from successful participation.
Thirdly, the pedagogic bases of these courses are often inconsistent with small business needs. For instance, Coopers and Lybrand (1994) identified the qualities of a preferred ‘small business course’. These include courses being short, sharp and specific, available locally, having flexible timing, interactive delivery, related to specific problems and opportunities, pitched at an appropriate level, linked to participants’ environments and whose presenters have empathy derived from first-hand experience. From this, it seems small business operators want courses with learning processes based on practical experience, greater flexibility in course content and outcomes associated with immediate job requirements (Coopers & Lybrand 1994, Roffey et al. 1996). However, meeting these requirements presents difficulties for vocational education providers, particularly through curriculum frameworks that privilege uniformity of outcomes (e.g. national industry competency standards, core national curriculum documents) and whose operation and performance measures are largely premised on teaching courses.
Fourthly, the market-based provision of VET likely hinders small business access to VET (Anderson 1995, Burke 1995, Billett & Cooper 1997). Providing tailored courses to small business is often simply unfeasible for VET providers who are pressed to secure the kinds of economies of scale provided by enterprises with large numbers of employees who can be engaged in the same courses or modules. Consequently, it is often not viable to offer individualised courses that are tailored to meet small business needs, particularly when those small businesses are in remote locations or widely distributed (Kempnich et al 1999). This set of factors prompt consideration for identifying ways to support and contribute to small business workers’ learning in ways other than through their participation in taught courses. Such options are likely to find support. It seems well understood by small business operators that effective learning can occur as part of everyday work activities. Consequently, opportunities arising in small business settings together with support that is local and needs their needs may provide an environment for effective learning experiences for small business owners and workers. Hence, there is a need to consider, evaluate and legitimated different kinds of learning spaces.
Increasingly, these kind of options are being canvassed as means to provide the learning experiences required to develop vocational skills that are highly pertinent to particular enterprises. Workplaces, for instance, are now seen as legitimate sites for learning (Boud & Garrick 1999). Moreover, for workers in many small business sectors, there is often no option other than to learn in the workplace, because it constitutes the only location in which to learn workplace requirements. Recent research elaborates small business workers’ preference for learning in their workplaces (Coopers & Lybrand 1994, Kilpatrick & Crowley 1999, Raffo et al. 2000). They nominate ‘learning as you go’ as the best means of gaining skills as small business owner/managers (Coopers & Lybrand 1994). This approach is preferred because it is practical and hands-on, the easiest and quickest way to learn and occurs as part of engaging in work tasks. Yet small business preferences for learning environments are not confined to their workplaces. Interactions with others, particularly with other business owners, are also proposed as effective means of gaining skills, mainly because they provide pertinent advice (Coopers & Lybrand 1994). Learning support is held to be most useful when it is context-specific and arising as a consequence of dealing with problems that is specific to a workplace (Raffo et al. 2000).
Nevertheless, although useful, contributions to learning derived from everyday activities in the workplace alone may be insufficient. There are weaknesses to learning through work activities that need to be addressed, including not being able to access expertise external to the enterprise. Workplaces, for instance, have been shown not to be effective learning environments when learning something wholly novel and there is a lack of available expertise associated with the new practice or process (Billett 2001b). Similarly, caution needs to be exercised in assuming that interacting with other small business operators will necessarily lead to learning ideas and procedures that are effective, particularly in dealing with learning novel tasks. An innovation such as the need for small business to implement a goods and services tax may well be of this kind for many small businesses. Thus, it becomes necessary to understand further how support for learning that is effective can best proceed in and for small businesses. This includes how the limitations of learning through work and access to support can be addressed.
Procedures
The procedures adopted for this study focused on identifying and understanding how small business operators had learned about the GST and had managed to implement it. A grounded approach to data gathering and verification of analysis was adopted. Data were gathered from small business operators to identify key contributions to their learning that were then used to generate a model of learning for small business. A sample of 30 small businesses participated in the first phase of the investigation. These comprised enterprises of different sizes (i.e. from micro businesses with 1-3 employees to those which employ 20 employees), in a range of locations (metropolitan and non-metropolitan) and with diverse specialisations (i.e. a range of focuses on goods and services). Owners and managers (operators) of small businesses comprised the informants for the study. The sample was drawn from the Brisbane metropolitan area as well as non-metropolitan areas in the state of Queensland, Australia.