LITERACY PLAY CENTERS1
[Type the document subtitle][G1]Denise K. Robinson
George Mason University
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to investigate the use of literacy play centers in early childhood settings, using an historical perspective to determine whether their use in meeting standards-based goals is supported by research. Studies related to preschool, pre-kindergarten, and kindergarten instruction are included. Although the quantity of articles related to play and literacy has decreased since the 1990’s, current research does support the use of play and literacy enriched environments to support emergent literacy skills in early childhood classrooms. The importance of scaffolding of student learning by adults in the classroom is also confirmed by the literature. New ways of using play to enhance skill-based instruction are provided, along with new perspectives on the play-literacy connection. Implications for future research are suggested.
Literacy Play Centers in a Standards-Based World
In the 1990’s, researchers looked at the possibilities of increasing emergent literacy behaviors in early childhood classrooms by incorporating literacy materials into existing play centers (Morrow, 1990; Morrow & Rand, 1991; Neuman & Roskos, 1990, 1992). Play was shown to be a viable means for enhancing vocabulary growth (Mason & Sinha, 1993), and early reading and writing behaviors (Neuman & Roskos, 1990, 1992; Christie, 1991). Preschool and kindergarten teachers were provided with examples of ways that they could add books, environmental print, writing implements, and other literacy materials to traditional play centers (Morrow & Rand, 1991; Neuman & Roskos, 1990). More recently, however[G2], early childhood teachers have been given information on increasing emerging literacy skills through teaching alphabet letters and sounds, rhyming words, and specific vocabulary lessons (Goldstein, 2007). Literacy stations, devoted to alphabetic knowledge, phonological awareness, and word study seem to be replacing the play centers of the past in both kindergarten and preschool classrooms[G3]. There may be less time available for play activities once seen as vital to the social, emotional, and learning growth of young children (Early, 2010). Is the time coming to reexamine the role of play in the lives of our youngest learners? Is there still room for literacy play centers in preschool and kindergarten?
The purpose of this review of the literature is to determine whether current research has continued to look at the role of play in the literacy learning of young children and if so, to discover the implications of their[G4] findings for current practice in early childhood classrooms. To limit the scope of this review, only studies and articles related to preschool, pre-kindergarten, and kindergarten classrooms will be included. To provide a context for current research, an historical perspective will be followed. Information from some of the most cited studies from the 1990’s will be outlined. The impact of federal legislation and government funded reports will be given. Finally, the findings of recent research will be reviewed.
The question to be answered by this review of the literature is: Can play-based literacy experiences help young children to meet standards[G5]-based literacy goals? To identify sources of information related to this topic, a preliminary search was undertaken using data bases such as PsycINFO, JSTOR, and ERIC. Key words that were found to be helpful included early childhood, emergent literacy, literacy play centers, literacy instruction, and play. In addition, manual searches were made of some of the relevant research journals, such as Early Childhood Research Quarterly, the Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, Reading Research Quarterly, Literacy Research and Instruction, Early Childhood Education Journal, and the Journal of Early Childhood Research. Articles chosen for inclusion focused on developing early literacy skills through specific teaching strategies, manipulation of the learning environment, or teacher mediation. Some report research on specific skill instruction that is more standards-based than play-based. However, as the historical perspective will show, researchers interested in play-based learning must oftentimes show how their interventions help students meet grade level literacy standards.
Early On—Playing to Learn
During the 1970’s and 1980’s, interest in dramatic and sociodramatic play by developmental and educational psychologists increased “because of its prevalence during the preschool years, its cognitive complexity, and its important role in the development theories of Piaget and Vygotsky” (Christie, 1991, p. 27). At the same time, the concept of emergent literacy was coming into use by researchers investigating the reading and writing development of young children (Sulzby & Teale, 1991). A move away from the reading readiness approach, favoring teacher-directed, skill based instruction and toward the more child-directed, socially situated emergent literacy approach was being used in early childhood education. These Vygotksian approaches to learningfocus on the environment and interactions with adults who model and scaffold the skills to be learned that result in “informal learning opportunities, exploration by children, interactive and shared events, and opportunities for children to weave together various aspects of tasks, concepts, and their own background knowledge and interests” (Mason & Sinha, 1993, p. 148)
According to Christie (1991), although connections between play, especially dramatic or pretend play, and early literacy were being made by researchers, most were reporting their findings in psychological journals, making access to information on how teachers could impact literacy growth through the use of play in the classroom difficult. As studies further supported the link between play and emergent literacy, research designed to investigate strategies teachers could use to strengthen oral language, reading, and writing skills in young learners began to be reported in educational journals and books, as well (Christie, 1991).
Enriching the Environment
Preschool teachers’ suggestions on how play environments in the classroom could be changed to promote literacy behaviorsin a study [G6]by Neuman and Roskos (1990). They looked at the impact of print-enriched play environments on how preschoolers used literacy behaviors to explore, interact, express themselves, enhance their play, and to use text. Two racially mixed early childhood classrooms, serving 37 four- and five-year olds, were used in the study. The play environments before enrichment were similar in both classrooms, offering traditional play centers with only limited print materials, especially at the children’s eye levels. Literacy behaviors were observed and measured prior to changes made to the classrooms by relocating and more clearly defining centers, adding labeling, and including literacy props chosen for their appropriateness, authenticity, and utility. A second series of observations were made one month after the changes were implemented. Using typological analysis, the researchers found that enriching the play areas led to literacy play that was more purposeful, situated, connected, interactive, and role defined. Later investigation (Neuman & Roskos, 1992) extended this research to include quantitative measures of specific literacy skills along with observational data.
Teacher Interaction
A study by Morrow (1990) also investigated the impact of play environments on literacy behaviors, with the added variable of teacher guidance. A total of 13 middle-class preschool and kindergarten classes serving 170 pupils taught by student teachers were randomly assigned to either a control or one of three experimental conditions: paper, pencil, and books with adult guidance; thematic material with adult guidance; and thematic materials without adult guidance. Pre-interventionobservations of literacy activities (reading, writing, and paper handling) were made in each classroom prior to the addition of materials for each experimental condition, and again one week after the changes. A third set of observations was made in each classroom one month later. Statistically significant increases in literacy behaviors during free play were found in both groups with teacher guidance over the thematic group without teacher guidance and the control group. The follow-up observations showed that the levels of literacy behaviors were maintained for each group. Morrow and Rand (1991) summarized the results of the Morrow (1990) study and extended the implications for classroom practice, suggesting a number of possible themes in different play areas throughout the classroom. They reinforced the importance of teacher behaviors in modeling and encouraging the use of literacy materials in these environments.
Environment and adult mediation were also found to impact emergent literacyas Neuman and Roskos (1993) looked at the influenceof two styles of adult interactions in literacy-enriched play settings on environmental and functional print tasks of 177 low-income students. Eight
Head Start classrooms were randomly assigned to a control condition or one of two intervention conditions: an office play setting with a volunteer parent-teacher assigned to assist children or an office play setting with a parent-teacher assigned only to observe and monitor the children. Prior to the intervention, the Test of Early Reading Ability (TERA) was administered to each child and baseline observations of play behaviors were made. During the five month intervention phase, an office play area was open to students three days per week. The area was enriched with environmental and functional literacy materials and designed using findings from previous research (Neuman & Roskos, 1990; 1992). Children’s play behavior was then observed both during the intervention (beginning one month after the changes were made) and again following the intervention. Quantitative analyses indicated that the office setting and teacher interaction were found to significantly impact the children’s environmental word reading; the office setting but not the style of adult mediation were found to impact the children’s ability to label functional print items in the office. Qualitatively, the use of play-frame analysis showed that adult interaction strongly influenced the children’s literacy-related play, helping the students to understand the function of the materials. In terms of reading and writing, the children were more likely to explore the use of words and letters without adult intervention.
Curriculum Focus
Returning to the debate between the reading readiness and emergent literacy approaches to kindergarten curricula, Nielsen and Monson (1996) conducted a year-long study in a school district which offered two distinct kindergarten programs: a traditional (reading readiness) program and a developmental (emergent literacy) program designed for young five-year-olds and other “developmentally young” kindergartners, who stayed in kindergarten for a second yearin the traditional program. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, the study looked at the literacy development of 83 children in two morning and afternoon classes in the same school, representing both types of kindergarten approaches. Data wereas collected in October and May to assess children’s concepts of print, alphabet and sound-symbol knowledge, word reading, writing, and story retelling. Observations of both teachers and children were made several times per month from November through April, supplemented with data fromresearcher field notes, student and teacher interviews, parent questionnaires, work samples, and teacher lesson plans. After analysis, the researchers found that teacher use and content focus varied greatly in the two types of classroom. Of particular interest was the finding that “Focus on those activities commonly associated with literacy (print and story-related activities, words, and writing) occurred 13.5% of the time in the reading readiness classroom and 46% of the time in the emergent literacy classroom” (p. 266), with similar results found for the children’s use of time related to literacy development. The teacher in the emergent literacy classroom often used the children’s free choice activities to plan and build literacy experiences with the students, similar to the environments and experiences described by Morrow (1990) and Neuman and Roskos (1990; 1992; 1993). Both groups showed significant overall growth on the literacy measures, however only the emergent literacy group showed significant gains on the story retelling task, suggesting that the curriculum approach can make a difference for literacy learning in kindergarten.
In sum, during the 1990’s, researchers began to investigate the relationship between play and literacy learning in early childhood settings. Research which had been published in psychological journals began to be made more accessible to those in the field of education. Demonstrating a Vygotskian framework, much of the research focused on environmental changes that could positively impact children’s emergent literacy skills and on the role of adults in scaffolding that literacy learning. Researchers began to look at ways that print-rich environments could benefit students considered at-risk through age, minority status, or income level. Using both quantitative and qualitative measures, researchers were able to show that introducing and scaffolding the use of literacy materials in play environments did have a significant, positive impact on emergent literacy skills for preschool and kindergarten children.
The New Millennium
As the 21st century began, an emphasis on the scientific aspects of learning to read emerged, partially in response to the meta-analysis of 450 studies on the teaching of reading published by the National Reading Panel in 2000, and to federally funded initiatives focusing on standards-based instruction for all students, including preschoolers and kindergartners (Roskos & Christie, 2007). The enactment of No Child Left Behind in 2001 established assessment goals for older students that have impacted what teachers must include in their lesson plans in preschool and kindergarten classrooms (Goldstein, 2007). Another influential report that has impacted literacy instruction was the report by the National Early Literacy Panel (NELP; 2008). This meta-analysis of quantitative, empirical research focused on five key areas: oral language and vocabulary; phonological sensitivity; alphabet knowledge and exposure to print; and writing skills. The report has drawn criticism from some who feel that the focus was too narrow and that the recommendations too skill-based to be “maximally effective for 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds” (Teale, Hoffman, & Paciga, 2010, p. 211).
An investigation of how children in pre-kindergarten spend their time, in light of the current emphasis on skill-based learning was conducted by Early, et al. (2010). The researchersy analyzed classroom observations of 2061children in 652 pre-k programs in 11 states, suggesting that“For pre-kindergarten to reduce achievement gaps, it is critical that the pre-kindergarten day beused productively and that all participating children experience meaningful activities.” (p. 177). Decisions about the appropriate types of activities offered are complicated by the fact that “Policy makers are increasingly concerned with discrete, testable “school readiness” skills,especially in pre-literacy and numeracy. However, many early childhood professionals believe that optimal learning inyoung children occurs through integrated, hands-on experiences and play, rather than through specific or distinct lessonsfocused on a single subject area” (p.179).
Roskos and Christie (2007) share these concerns, stating, “How to make the connection among play, early learning and early literacy clear in standards frameworks and language remains a hard problem, and one that continues to reduce play’s role in a standards-driven world” (p. 90). Early childhood teachers are often asked to make hard choices between their practices and beliefs. The dichotomy between kindergarten teachers’ belief that their students should be afforded a developmentally appropriate approach to learning and the constraints of school district’s mandated standards for kindergarten students was the subject of a qualitative case study investigating the beliefs and practices of two kindergarten teachers (Goldstein, 2007). The teachers in this study were able to incorporate the state standards into their teaching while at the same time continuing to include what they felt were developmentally appropriate, often play-based, activities. Goldstein reports, however, that their “comments suggest thelogistical realities of teaching a standards-based curriculum were changing kindergarten from a peaceful and pleasantenvironment shaped by the needs of the children and the professional judgments of the teachers into an educational racetrack on which teachers and students are expected to rush at top speed toward a predetermined finish line” (p. 48).
An increasing emphasis on research-based instructional practices has come about as a result of both legislation and federally funded research into effective reading practices. For some teachers, this presents a conflict between teaching practices they believe are appropriate and those mandated by their school districts (Goldstein, 2007; Early, et al., 2010). Questions posed by researchers focus investigations on ways to help teachers merge skill-based and play-based activities for emergent literacy learners.