Liberal Revolutions in the 19Th Century

LiberalRevolutionsinthe19thCentury

TheFirstWaveofRevolutions:ThePre-MarchEra(1830–1848)anditsFrenchOrigin

Intheearlyphaseoftherevolutionarymovementsthe middleclassdidnotmeddleinpolitics,onlywhentheyfelttheireconomicinterestsendangereddidlargerpartsofthemiddleclassstandupagainstthereactionarysystem.ThiswasfirstthecaseinFranceinJuly1830.SupportedbyMetternichandtheothervictoriouspowers,theHouseofBourbonhadreturnedaskingsofFranceafterNapoleonhadbeendefeated.Thisstepwaswellinaccordancewiththeprinciplesofrestorationandlegitimacy.ButinordertoreunitethedifferentfractionsofFrenchsocietythathadrebelledsoviolentlyagainsteachother,theBourbonkingsdidnotreturntothefeudalsystemofLouisXVI.Instead,LouisXVIII,thebrotherofthebeheadedking,managedtore-unitehispeoplebehindtheCrownbykeepingsomeofthestandardsoftherevolution.Orientatinghisgovernmentalongthelinesoftheconstitutionof1791,hethusfavouredthebourgeoisie.Inthefirstphaseoftherevolution,thisupperlevelofthemiddleclasshadboughttheconfiscatedlandofthenoblesandnowreplacedthenoblesasadviserstothekingintheconstitutionalmonarchy.Byintroducingabicamerallegislature*,LouisXVIIIpartlyacknowledgedthegrowingimportanceofthissocialgroup.ThoughaChamberofPeerswaschosenbythekingalone,themoreimportantChamberofDeputieswaselected.Asthefranchiseforthischamberwasrestrictedtopropertiedpeople,thebourgeoisiebecamethemostpowerfulpoliticalelementinsociety.However,theirpowerwasputatriskwiththeaccessionofCharlesX,thebrotherofLouisXVIII.Charlesfelthisownconstitutionalmonarchytobemorallyweakenedinthecircleofthemajorcontinentalpowerswhohadalmostallrestoredtheirabsolutistsystems.Inordertogainsupportersofamonarchybasedondivinerightonly,CharlesXtriedtolurenoblesbacktoFrancebypromisinghighindemnities,butthewealthymiddleclassfearedthatthecostsoftheseindemnitiestoemigrantswhohadlosttheirestates– approximately989millionfrancs– wouldleadtoasevereslumpintheFrencheconomy.Intheensuingconflictoverthismatter,thekingcensoredthepress,replacedthecabinet,andevendissolvedtheChamberofDeputies.Notonlydidthebourgeoisienowfearthelossoftheirmoney,butalsotheirpoliticalinfluence.Evenifitisnotclearhowrealthedangerofanewabsolutemonarchywas,thethreatofitwasenoughtobringthepeopletothestreet.WhenCharlesXwasinformedoftheriots,hesentsoldiersintoParis,buttheycouldnottakethebarricadesorevenchangedsides.TherewasnothingleftforCharlesXtodobuttoabdicateandfleebacktoEngland.TurningFranceintoarepublicwasoutofthequestionsbecausethiswouldautomaticallybringFranceintoconflictwithallitsneighbouringstates.Topreventthis,thebourgeoisrebelschoseLouis-Philippe*,DukeofOrleans,tobecomethenewkingofFrance,now ‘kingbythegraceofGodandthewillofthepeople’.Asthismemberoftheroyalfamilyhadsidedwiththe moderaterepublicansduringtheFrenchRevolution – hehadevenexchangedhishereditarytitleforthesecondnameof “Egalité” – heseemedtobepredestinedfortheroleofakingcontrolledbyaconstitutionandaChamberofDeputies.Andindeed,foraboutadecadethepowerofthekingremainedlimited.Forexample,thekingwasnotallowedtocensorthepressortopassemergencylaws.Moreover,thelegislativeinitiativewaspassedtotheChambers.Tosymbolizethepoliticalinfluenceofthepeople,thetricolourbecamethenationalflagofFranceonceagain.

UnsuccessfulImitationsofFrance:Poland,Italy,Germany

WhilethemonarchsoftheHolyAlliancedisapprovedofFrance’snew “barricadeking,” manypeoplethroughoutEuropewereawakenedbytheFrenchJulyRevolution.InPoland,therewashopeforrenewedFrenchassistanceinanuprisingagainsttheRussianTsarAlexanderI*.ThecomparablysmallcountryhadlongsufferedundertheattemptoftheRussiansovereignstoexpandtheirempiretothewest.Thus,thePolishpeoplehadreallyseenNapoleonasaliberatortofreethemfromgrowingRussianinfluenceandhadfollowedhimloyallytotheend.Asaresult,PolandhadbeenpunishedseverelyattheCongressofVienna:largeareasofthecountryweredistributedamongstthemembersoftheHolyAlliance,andtheremainingpartwasputunderthestrictcontroloftheRussianTsar.Althoughthisso-called “CongressPoland” wasofficiallyprovidedwithaconstitutionandaparliament,AlexanderIdisregardedboth,andhisorthodoxbelieffurtheralienatedhimfromthetraditionallyCatholicPolishpopulation.InthewakeoftheJulyRevolution,Polishliberalistsandnationaliststhereforetriedtodeposehimastheirheadofstate.AnuprisinginWarsawwascrushedbythesuperiorRussianmilitary.PolandwasnowcompletelyincorporatedintotheRussianEmpire,andunderwentaharshpolicyofRussification.

SeveralsmallerstatesinItalyexperiencedadefeatcomparabletothatofPoland.TheirwealthymiddleclasscitizensregardedthebourgeoisJulyRevolutioninFranceasanexampletotakeactionfortheirowneconomicinterests.TheiruprisingwassoonsupportedbypeoplewithstrongItaliannationalismandbypeoplewhoweresimplytiredoftherepressionsoftheAustrianoccupation.But,asinPoland,noFrenchsupportarrived,andontheirown,theItalianrebelsdidnotstandachanceagainstthewell-trainedAustriantroops.Thus,theMetternichSystemwasenforcedagain:censorshipwasintensified,andsuspectedpoliticaltroublemakerswereexpelled.OneofthemwasthelawyerGiuseppeMazzini*.

MazzinifledtoMarseilleswhereheestablishedasecretsocietycalled “YoungItaly” in1832.Healsosupportedthebroaderideaofademocraticleagueofnationstoreplacethemonarchs’ influenceonEuropewiththatofthepeople.Tothisend,healsofoundedthe “YoungEurope”*movementinBernin1834.Thismovementactedasanumbrellaorganisationforotherexisting “young” movementssuchas “YoungPoland” and “YoungGermany.” “YoungEurope” establishedanetworktopreparerebellionsandtosupportpoliticalrefugees.ItwaslargelycoordinatedfromMazzini’sexileinLondon.TheirsupranationalcooperationcouldalreadybeseenattheHambachFestival*,forexample.

HeldatHambachCastleinsouthwestGermanyin1832,thefestival’s30,000participantshadnotonlybeenattractedfromotherGermanstates,butalsofromFranceandPoland.TheHambachFestivalshowedthattheirideasdivergedimmensely.SomememberslikeSiebenpfeiffer*andWirth*wantedtodeprivethesovereignsofalltheirpowerinordertoreplacetheoldsystemwithaGermanrepublic.But,formanyothers,suchclaimswerefartooradical.Thesovereignskeptuptheirrepressions.ThemostfamousexampleistheabolitionoftheconstitutionofHanoverbyitsnewkingErnestAugustus*.WhensevenprofessorsatHanover’suniversityatGöttingen(amongthemtheBrothersGrimm*)protestedagainstthisstep,theywererelievedoftheirofficesandexiled.EventhoughthiscausedanoutcrythroughoutEurope,itdidnotchangethematteritself.ThisonceagainillustratestheprevailingatmosphereintheGermanstatesinthe1830s:Evenifmanypeoplewerenotcontentwiththeirpoliticalsituation,theydidnotsufferenoughtomakethemact.

SuccessfulImitationofFrance:Belgium

OnlythefoundationofBelgiumcanbecitedasapositiveexample: In 1831 thepeoplemanagedtoestablish their own parliamentaftertheyhadlefttheUnitedKingdomoftheNetherlands.TheirgeneralcallforaliberalstateindependentoftheNetherlandswasquicklyacceptedbyEurope’smajorpowersinordertopreventanescalationoftheconflict.Moreover,themajorpowerscheckedthespreadoftheBelgianliberalmovementinseveralways:TheycommittedthenewstatetostrictneutralityandagreedonLeopoldofSaxe-Coburg-Gothatobecomeking,thusgivingthesmallnewstateamonarchicalappearance.Nevertheless,asKingLeopoldIofBelgium*,hehadtorespecttheconstitutiondraftedbyaprovisionalgovernment.Itincludedcivilrightsandestablishedtheparliamentarysystem.ThoughtheBelgianexamplecanbecountedasavictoryfortheliberalmovement,itillustratesatthesametimethatsuchavictorywasonlyallowedbecauseEurope’smonarchiesdidnotfeeltheirownpositionendangered.

Fearing the spread of liberalism, these committedthenewstatetostrictneutrality,though.andsenttheircandidatetobecomekingofthesmallstate.Nevertheless,asKingLeopoldIofBelgium*,LeopoldofSaxe-Coburg-Gothahadtorespecttheconstitutiondraftedbyaprovisionalgovernment.Itincludedcivilrightsandestablishedtheparliamentarysystem.

TheSecondWaveofRevolutions:1848anditsFrenchOrigin

Ittookuntil1848forasituationtodevelopinEuropewhichmotivatedvarioussocialcirclestostandupfortheirdemands.Thebourgeoiscitizenshadfulfilledtheirfirstmutualaim – theguaranteeoftheirownprosperity – somanyofthemcouldnowdirecttheirintereststotheirsecondaim:equalopportunityshouldnowbeexpandedtopoliticalrepresentation.Moreover,thethirdcommonaimofthemiddleclass,theminimisationofeconomicrestrictions,becameincreasinglyessentialtomanyindustrialists:experiencingthatparticularism*causedfinancialdamagebecauseofitsvariouscustomsanddifferingunitsofmeasurement,theircallfornationalunitygrewlouder.EspeciallyinfragmentedareaslikeGermanyorItaly,nationalismwasthusstrengthenedbythisneweconomicmotivation.Theeconomicmotivationswhichfinallytriggeredtherevolutionsweremuchsimpler,however,and,affectingunqualifiedworkersandfarmersmainly,involvedfarlargercrowds.Firstly,industrialisationbegantoendangersmallerartisans,replacingtheirjobsbycheaperandfastermachines.Secondly,aseriesofbadharvestscreatedafeelingofunrestamongfarmers.Incontrasttothechieflybourgeoisinsurrectionsoftheearly1830s,therevolutionsof1848werethereforebasedonasocialbackgroundwhichwasbothbroaderandmorediverse.Althoughthisscenariogavetherevolutionstheirinitialmomentum,itwouldalsohelptocrushthemintheend.

ThisparadoxcanbestbeseeninFrance.The “CitizenKing” of1830hadstartedtorelylessandlessonthebourgeoisiethroughoutthe1840s.WhenKingLouis-Philippe’srejectiontoextendthevotetothegrowingmiddleclasscoincidedwithrevoltsofunemployedParisianworkersin1848,theseoppositionalforcesquicklyunitedandforcedtheabdicationofthe “CitizenKing.” TogethertheyestablishedaprovisionalgovernmentwhichwassupposedtotransformFranceintoarepublic.ButoncethemutualenemyLouis-Philippewasgone,itproveddifficulttobringworkingclassandmiddleclassinterestsintoline.ThesocialistLouisBlanc*propagateda10-hourworkday(insteadof12hours)andnationalworkshopswhichprovidedjobstotheunemployed.However,themiddleclassregardedthecostsoftheworkshopsastoohigh.Whentheirrepresentativesdecidedtoclosethem,theworkersroseinriotagainstthisdecision.Althoughtheriotshadbeencrushedbrutally,theyhadcausedageneralfearofnationwidesocialistrevolts.ThisatmospheredrovemanyFrenchmentothe “PartyofOrder.” Itadvocatedtheintroductionofastrongpresidentasheadoftherepublic.Drivenbythepropagandaofthe “PartyofOrder,” Louis-NapoleonBonaparte,nephewoftheex-emperorNapoleonI,waselectedintothisofficebypopularvote.However,ashisunclehaddone48yearsbefore,heusedhisdominantpositionandhispopularityforacoupd’état,crowninghimselfNapoleonIII*.Hesoonreversedmostchangesoftherevolutionof1848.Withhisthree-yearresidencyrequirement,forexample,heexcludedlargepartsofthemigrantworkersfromelectionsagain.Ontheotherhand,hefavouredthefactoryownersbyre-introducingthe12-hourworkday.Deepeningthedivisionbetweenworkersandbourgeoisie,thealliesof1848,hemanagedtofosterhisownpositionasanauthoritarianemperor.EventhoughtheFrenchFebruaryRevolutionfinallyfailedtoestablishaliberalrepublic,itonceagaincausedachainreactionthroughoutEurope.

ImitationsofFranceinGermanyandAustria:SuccessfulStart

InGermany,peasantswerestruckbycropfailures,tradersandfactoryownerswerehinderedbytheexistenceof38differentstateswithitscustombarriers,cottageweaverswereruinedbyindustriallyproducedgoodsfromEngland,liberalfreethinkerswerepersecutedasdemagogues – justafewreasonswhypeoplewelcomedtheFrenchFebruaryRevolutionsoopenly.InnumerousupheavalsinMarch,theydemandedfreedomofassemblyandofthepress,apeople’smilitia,andnationalunity.Incontrastto1832,mostprincesgaveintothese “Marchdemands”*quicklyandappointedcomparablyliberal “Marchministers,”*promisedconstitutions,andfinallyabolishedallmanorialprivileges.

Themulti-ethnicHabsburgAustrianEmpirefacedvariousattacksitself.Here,apartfromtheusualworkers’ protestsofearlyindustrialisation,Italian,Czech,andHungariannationalistsusedthewakeofFrance’srevolutiontoclaimtheirindependenceagain.ThishadhappenedbeforeinacountrywhichhadbeencreatedattheCongressofViennawithoutregardingthereligious,cultural,andlinguisticdifferencesofitspeoples.Nevertheless,usuallynotallethnicminoritieshadriotedatthesametime.SinglerebellionshadbeencrushedbythesuperiorAustrianarmy,butthistimetherewasamultitudeofrebellions.Themembersoftheupperclassfearednationalbankruptcy.ThiseconomicaspectmadethemjointheriotsoftheunderpaidworkersandtheliberalstudentsinVienna.Inthissituation,eventheAustrianemperorhadtomakeconcessions.CountMetternich,thehatedreactionaryministerofstate,hadtoresignon15thMarch,andaconstitutionwaspromised.

TheGermansovereignsprobablysawthisasanexampleofhowtohandletheirowncrisis.Assoonasmanysmallerprinceshadgivenintoliberalclaims,eventhelargerstateslikeBavariaandPrussiafollowed.AfterseverestreetfightingthePrussianKingFredericWilliamIV*withdrewhistroopsfromBerlinandpaidtributetotheso-called “VictimsofMarch.”*Inhisproclamation “TomypeopleandtotheGermanNation” from21stMarch,heevenpromisedtoputhimselfattheheadofaunifiedGermany.TheideaofnationalunityhadalreadybeenvoicedbythepoetErnstMoritzArndtinhispopularpoemandsongfrom1813:

Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?

Ist’s Preußenland? Ist’s Schwabenland?

[…]

O nein, o nein, o nein!

Sein Vaterland muss größer sein!

[…]

Soweit die deutsche Zunge klingt

Und Gott im Himmel Lieder singt:

Das soll es sein! Das soll es sein!

Underthesecircumstances,theFederalDietfinallyallowedapre-parliamentaryassembly*tomeetatFrankfurt.573membersweresentbythestateparliamentsoftheGermanConfederationtoorganizeelectionstoaGermanNationalAssembly*.Eventually,representativeswerevotedforbyallmalecitizens.However,insomestatesvotingwaslimitedbypropertyqualifications.ThiswasonereasonwhytheFrankfurtNationalAssemblymainlyconsistedofdoctors,professors,judges,officials,andteachers.Additionally,theywereoftenregardedasinfluentialpeopleintheircommunity.Frankfurt,therefore,cametobeknownasthe “parliamentofdignitaries.”*

FinalFailureoftheLiberalRevolutions

Manypeasantsandworkersfearedtheirinterestsmightnotberepresentedadequately.Indeed,theFrankfurtAssemblyconcentratedondraftingaconstitution,butdidnotfocusoneverydayneedssuchashigherwages.Unhappywiththisdevelopment,FriedrichHecker,aleft-wingmemberofthepre-parliament,attemptedtocreateanindependentrepublic.Heckerandthelike-mindedpoliticianGustavStruvesoongathereddemocraticirregulars*insouthwestGermany.ThoughtheirtroopswerequicklydefeatedbyarmiesoftheGermanLeague,thiseventrevealedtwodangerstheNationalAssemblywasfacing:alackofexecutivepowerandanalienationfromthelowercirclesofsociety.Asithadnotroopsunderitscommand,theAssemblyalwaysdependedonthecooperationoftheGermanprinces.Ofcourse,theprincesmightalsosendtheirtroopsagainsttheNationalAssemblyitselfiftheywerenotcontentwithitsideas.Awareofthissituation,therepresentatives’ aspirationsofastateverydifferentfromtheoldpoliticalordercertainlybecamelimited.ThisattitudeoftheNationalAssembly,inturn,onlyincreaseditsalienationfromthepeople.BothdangersweresoontothreatentheNationalAssemblyagainwhenawaragainstDenmarkbrokeoutoverSchleswigandHostein.

TheDuchiesofSchleswigandHolsteinhadtraditionallybeeninhabitedbyGermansandDanes.However,sincetheWarsofLiberationhadgivenrisetonationalisminGermanyandDenmark,bothpeopleswantedtoincludetheduchiesintotheirnation.GermannationalistsoccupiedfortressesandproclaimedaprovisionalgovernmentinKiel.This,inturn,wasseenasanactofrebellionbytheDanishgovernment,andsoanarmedconflicthadbecomeunavoidable.TheFrankfurtAssemblysidedwithSchleswig-Holstein’sGermanminority,butlackedthemeansofmilitarysupport.Onceagain,militaryactionwashandedovertotheFederalDiet,thetraditionalassemblyoftheGermanprinces’ envoys.ItrequestedthePrussianKingtosendhistroops.Althoughhismilitarycampaignwassuccessful,FrederickWilliamIVsoonfoundhimselftrappedbetweenforeignanddomesticpolitics.DuetothePrussianvictory,GreatBritainandRussiafearedthatthebalanceofpowerwouldbedisturbedandputpressureonFrederickWilliamIVtosignanarmisticewithDenmark.TheFrankfurtAssembly,backedbypopularopinion,opposedsuchanarmistice,however.Nonetheless,thePrussianKinggaveintointernationalpressureandsignedtheArmisticeofMalmö – withoutevenconsultingtheFrankfurtAssembly.Officially,onlythenewlyelectedimperialvicar*ArchdukeJohnofAustria*wouldhavehadtherighttosignaftertheFederalDiethadhandedoveralllegalpowertohim.ButtheincidentprovedthatneithertheFederalDietnorthekingtooktheimperialvicarandhisappointedprovisionalgovernmentseriously.RadicalFrankfurtdemocratsandworkersfeltbetrayedbytheirrepresentatives.WhentheystartedtofenceinSt.Paul’sChurch*withbarricades,theparliamentariansthemselvesdependedontheassistanceofPrussiantroops.Ofcourse,Prussianforcesquicklybeattherebels,butthewaragainstDenmarkandthetroublessurroundingitsarmisticehadmadeobvioushowfartheparliamenthadbecomedisengagedfromthemassesandhowmuchitdependedonthemonarchatlast.

Thisdependenceonthemonarchsalsoinfluencedthedraftingofaconstitution.Manybourgeoismembersofthe “parliamentofdignitaries” hadfavouredaparliamentarymonarchyastheidealtypeofstatefromthestart.UndertheimpressionoftheFrankfurtrebellion,thissystemofauthorityandorderstillgainedmoresupportwithintheNationalAssembly.Althoughallmenover25yearsofageweregrantedtovoteforthemembersoftheLowerHouseinuniversal,equal,andsecretelections,thelegislativepowerofthispopularassemblywouldbelimited.Firstly,theLowerHousewouldonlyposeonehalfoftheReichstag.IthadtoagreewiththeUpperHouse,consistingoftherepresentativesofthe38states,sentbytheirgovernmentsandstateparliaments.Electionstosuchstateparliamentswouldpartlystillberestrictedbypropertyqualifications,however.Secondly,thekingwouldbeequippedwithextensiveexecutivepowers.Hewouldbethesupremecommanderofthearmedforces,andhewouldappointtheministers.HewouldevenhavetherighttovetobillsoftheReichstagortodissolveitcompletely.Despitealltheserestrictions,theconstitutioncanstillbeseenasanimprovementbecauseitincludedtheBasicRightsoftheGermanPeople*anditgavemalecitizensatleastsomepoliticalinfluence.

ButthisdemocraticinfluencefinallykeptthePrussianmonarchfromacceptingthecrown.Unfortunately,FrederickWilliamIVofPrussiahadremainedtheonlyrealisticchoiceoftheNationalAssemblyaftertheGreaterGermanSolution*hadnotworkedout.TheGreaterGermanSolutionfavouredbythesouthernstateshadaimedatthecreationofanation-stateincludingallGerman-speakingcommunitiesoftheAustrianEmpire.TheAustriangovernmentdidnotacceptthissolutionbecause,practically,itwouldhavemeanttheendofitshugemultiethnicstate.InsteadofjoiningGermanywithonlyonepartofitsempire,Austriademandedtojoincompletely.This,inturn,couldnotbeacceptedbytheNationalAssemblyastheinclusionofCzechs,Italians,Hungarians,Serbs,andSlovenescontradicteditscentralgoalofunifyingallGermans.Consequently,theSmallerGermanSolution*waspursuedbythemajorityoftherepresentatives.Accordingtothismodel,Austriawastobeexcluded,andPrussia,asthesecondlargestpoweroftheformerHolyRomanEmpire,wastotakethecrownfromtheNationalAssembly.However,thePrussianmonarchwasnotwillingtoacceptacrownpresentedtohimbythepeople.Inhisopinion,sovereignsweredesignatedbygod,andonlytheotherGermanprincescouldchoosehimastheirleaderamongtheirownexclusiveranks.

On28thApril1848FrederickWilliamIVcouldeasilystatethisopiniontothedelegationfromFrankfurtbecausethemonarchsandtheirarmyhadprovedtobethedecisivefactor,whereastherevolutionarieshadachievednopracticalgoals.EventhoughtheirrepresentativeshaddecidedonaconstitutionandontheboundariesofGermanyafterendlessdiscussions,theylackedthemilitary,financial,andadministrativemeanstoputthemintoaction.AndwithFrederickWilliam’srefusal,theyevenlackedthemonarchfortheirmonarchy.Thepeople’sonlymeansofexertingpoliticalpressurehadbeentheunityofbourgeoiscitizens,farmers,andworkers – andthisunityhadlongbrokenup.Thisbreakwasstilldeepenedbytheimposedconstitutions* ‘granted’ bythemonarchs.Theseconstitutionsclearlyfavouredthebourgeoisiebyathree-classvotingsystem*andbythesovereign’srighttosimplyappointthemembersoftheUpperHouseandtheministry.Whilethissecuredthegoodwilloftherichmiddleclass,itexcludedmoreradicalmembersofthelowerclassfromgaininganyinfluence.Onthesurface,themonarchsappearedtokeeptheirpromisesofconstitutions,butinrealitytheyfosteredthesocialandpoliticalconditionswhichhadexistedbeforeMarch1848.Theyre-establishedtheGermanLeagueandclosedtheNationalAssembly.Whenonehundredmembersrefusedtoleaveandorganisedarumpparliament*inStuttgart,itwassoondisbandedmilitarily. “Radicals” whostilldemandedtheconstitutiontocomeintoforcewerebrutallyopposedandcourt-martialled,themostviolentexampleofsucheventsbeingthefallofthefortressofRastatt*.SurvivingliberalseitheremigratedtotheUnitedStatesinlargenumbersorwithdrewfrompolitics,onceagainfocusingontheirprivatelivesandtheireconomicprogress.

AsFrancehadalreadydevelopedintoanauthoritarianmonarchyafteritsFebruaryRevolutionandAustriahadcalledonRussiatohelpputdownitsvariousrebellions,theGermanliberalswerethelasttofail.However,someoftheirbasicideaswouldbetakenuplateroninhistory.Forexample,theconstitutionoftheGermanEmpireof1871wasmodelledontheonedraftedbytheNationalAssembly.Buttothepeopleofthe1850s,thiswasnocomfort,ofcourse.

MatthiasRose