Lectio Prima (I)

MODULE I

LECTIO PRIMA (I)

Topic: The Latin Alphabet. Phonetics.

Number of Hours: 2

Objective: to acquire the skills of orphography and reading of

Latin medical terminology.

TOPIC CONTENT

The Latin alphabet.
Pronunciation of vowels.
Pronunciation of diphthongs.
Pronunciation of consonants.
Pronunciation of two- consonant letter combinations.
Pronunciation of letter combinations.

THE LATIN ALPHABET

The Latin alphabet consists of 24 letters. In Latin medical terminology the names of plants, chemical elements, medications, eponyms (author’s names), pharmaceutical terminology are written with capital letter; anatomical and clinical terms are written with small letter (except of eponymic notions).

N

Latin letters

Name

Pronunciation

1. / A a / a / a
2. /

B b

/ be / b
3. /

C c

/ tse / ts or k
4. /

D d

/ de / d
5. /

E e

/ e / e
6. /

F f

/ ef / f
7. /

G g

/ ge / g
8. /

H h

/ ha / h
9. /

I i

/ i / i or j
10. /

K k

/ ka / k
11. /

L l

/ el (soft) / l (soft)
12. /

M m

/ em / m
13. /

N n

/ en / n
14. /

O o

/ o / o
15. /

P p

/ pe / p
16. /

Q q

/ ku / k
17. /

R r

/ er / r
18. /

S s

/ es / s
19. /

T t

/ te / t
20. /

U u

/ u / u
21. /

V v

/ ve / v
22. /

X x

/ iks / ks
23. / Y y / ipsilon / i
24. /

Z z

/ zet / z or ts

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS

There are 6 vowels in the Latin alphabet: a, e, i, o, u, y.

The letter “a” is pronounced as [a]: aorta(aorta).

The letter “e” is pronounced as [e]: vertebra (vertebra).

The letter “o” is pronounced as [o]: os (bone).

The letter “u” is pronounced as [u]: meatus (passage, way).

The letter “i” in most cases is pronounced as [i]: mandibula (mandible).

Nota bene: if “i” is between two vowels in the middle of the word, or at the beginning of the word followed by a vowel, it is pronounced as [j], e.g.: maior (big), iugularis (jugular). In these cases letter “j” can be written instead of “i”, e.g.: major, jugularis.

Letter “y” is pronounced as [i] and is only used in the words of Greek origin, e.g.: larynx (larynx).

Remember some prefixes and roots with letter “y”:

-prefixes with letter “y”:

hyper- very high, above norm, e.g.: hypertonia (hypertention);

hypo- very low, a condition of diminished tone, e.g.: hypotonia (hypotention);

dys- indicates functional disorders, e.g.: dystonia (dystonia);

syn, sym- indicates union or association, e.g.: syndromum (syndrome).

-roots with letter “y”:

hydr- indicates the presence of water, e.g.: hydrops( hydropsis);

oxy- indicates the presence of oxygen, e.g.: oxydum (oxyde);

pyr- indicates the presence of antipyretic substance, e.g. Pyranalum (pyranal);

mycin- medications of antifungal action, e.g. Streptomycinum (streptomycin).

PRONUNCIATION OF DIPHTHONGS

A diphthong is a combination of two vowels which are pronounced as one sound.

There are four diphthongs in Latin language: ae, oe, au, eu:

diphthong “ae” is pronounced as [e], e.g.: aegrotus (ill);

diphthong “oe” is pronounced as [e], e.g.: oedema (swelling);

diphthong “au” is pronounced as [av], e.g.: auris (ear);

diphthong “eu” is pronounced as [ev], e.g.: neuron (nerve).

Exception: If there are double dots above the letter combinations “aë” and “oë”, they are pronounced as two separate sounds, e.g.: aër (air), dyspnoë (shortness of breath).

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS

There are 18 consonants in the Latin alphabet.

The letter “b” is pronounced as [b], e.g.: abdomen (tummy, abdomen).

The letter “ c” can be pronounced both as [ts] and [k]. If letter “c” is followed by vowels e, i, y or diphthongs ae, oe – it is pronounced as [ts], e.g.: processus (process).

The letter “c” is pronounced as [k] in such cases:

- if it is followed by vowels a, o, u, e.g.: caput (head), costa (rib), arcus (arch);

- if it is followed by consonant, e.g.: cranium (skull);

- if it is at the end of the word, e.g.: lac (milk).

The letter “d” is pronounced as [d], e.g.: dens (tooth).

The letter “f” is pronounced as [f], e.g.: foramen (opening).

The letter “g” is pronounced as [g], e.g.: angulus (angle).

The letter “h” is pronounced as [h] without aspiration, e.g: homo (man).

Theletter “k” is used in the words of Greek origin or international vocabulary and is pronounced as [k]: Kalium (Arabic word)- potassium, skeleton (Greek word)-skeleton.

The letter “l” is pronounced softly:e.g.: medulla (spinal cord).

The letter “m” is pronounced as [m],e.g.: manus (hand).

The letter “n” is pronounced as [n], e.g.: nervus (nerve).

The letter “p” is pronounced as [p], e.g.: pulmo (lung).

The letter “r” is pronounced as [r], e.g.: ramus (branch).

The letter “s” is pronounced as [s], e.g.: sulcus (furrow).

If letter “s” is between two vowels or between the vowel and the consonants “m” or “n” it is pronounced as [z], e.g.: incisura (incisure),

organismus (organism).

The letter “t” is pronounced as [t], e.g.: tuberculum (tubercle).

The letter “v” is pronouced as [v], e.g.: vena (vein).

The letter “x” in most cases is pronounced as [ks], e.g.: apex (apex).

If the letter “x” is between vowels it is pronounced as [kz], e.g.: exitus (end, exit).

The letter “z” is pronounced as [z] in the words of Greek origin, e.g.: zygoma (cheekbone); in words borrowed from modern languages of the world it is pronounced as [ts], e.g.: Zincum (German word).

PRONUNCIATION OF TWO- CONSONANT LETTER COMBINATIONS

The letter combinations “ch”, “ph”, “th”, “rh” are used only in the words of Greek origin:

“ch” is pronounced as [h], e.g.: chirurgus (surgeon).

“th” is pronounced as [t], e.g.: thorax (chest).

“rh” is pronounced as [r], e.g.: rhomboideus (rombus like).

“ph” is pronounced as [f], e.g.: pharynx (pharynx).

PRONUNCIATION OF LETTER COMBINATIONS

The letter combination “ngu” is pronounced as [ngv] if followed by a vowel, e.g.: sanguis (blood).

The letter combination “su” is pronounced as [sv] if followed by a vowel, e.g.: suavis (pleasant, sweet).

The letter combination “ti” is pronounced as [tsi] before a vowel, e.g.: articulatio (joint).

The letter combination “qu” is always pronounced as [kw], e.g.: aqua (water).

THE EXERCISES TO BE DONE IN THE CLASS AND AT HOME

1. Read the words and explain the pronunciation of underlined letters:

1.gangraena
2. operatio
3. concha
4. sic
5. symptoma
6. Quercus
7. oxydatio
8. eupnoë
9. exemplar
10. fractura / 11. systole
12. auscultatio
13. basis
14. kinesis
15. consuetudo
16. thea
17. phalanx
18. fissura
19. saccharum
20. hydroxydum

2. Write out the words of Greek origin and explain the pronunciation of the letters in these words:

aquosus
symphysis
pharmacon
medicamentum
dyspepsia
thrombus
toxaemia
zygomaticus
hypoglossus
chondros

paediater
hydrochloricus
keratoma
peroxydum
inflammatio
leukaemia
hypertrophia
rhizoma
syndactylia
maximus

Choose the words with sound [e]:

membrum
diaeta
neurosis
caecum
luteus

benzoë
abdominalis
coeliacus
cingulum

10. rabies

4. Choose the words with sound [z ] :

narcosis
mensis
atlas
viscus
Zincum
dosis
zoon
sapiens
transversus
trapezoideus

Choose the words in which letter combination “ti” is pronounced as [tsi],explain the rule:

vitium
tibia
sterilisatio
protuberantia

5. patientia /

tertius
palatinus
substantia
acusticus

10. spatium

6. Choose the words with diphthongs or letter combinations of consonants of Greek origin:

caecalis
choroideus
cauda
hypoderma
trachea
auricula
thoracicus
pleura
rhinencephalon
oedematicus

LECTIO SECUNDA (II)

Topic: How To Stress Latin Words. Long And Short Vowels.

Number of Hours: 2

Objective: to acquire skills of stressing Latin words.

TOPIC CONTENT

General notion about long and short vowels.
Long vowels.

3. Short vowels.

4. Rules of stressing.

GENERAL NOTION ABOUT LONG AND SHORT VOWELS

There are 6 vowels in Latin language: a, e, o, u, i, y. They can be long and short according to the way they are prnounced. Long vowels are marked with a short line (-) over a vowel: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, y; short vowels are marked with such a symbol (ˇ) over avowel: ă, ĕ, ŏ, ĭ, ŭ, ў.

It is necessary to define whether a vowel is long or short in order to stress the word correctly. In Latin words we define the stress in the second syllable from the end. The syllables are counted from the end of the word. It is important to remember that the number of syllables corresponds to the number of vowels, for example: the word ar-ti-cu-la-ti-o (joint) has 6syllables because there are 6vowels in this word: (a, i, u, a, i, o).

One should remember that diphthongs (ae, oe, au, eu) and letter combinations(ngu, su, qu) form one syllable: the word au-ris (ear) has 2 syllables, the word sa-nguis (blood) has 2 syllables too.

LONG VOWELS

The second syllable from the end is long in such cases or positions:

If it contains a diphthong in the second syllable from the end of the word: glutāeus (gluteal).
If two or three consonants are preceded by a vowel in the second syllable from the end of the word: ligamēntum (ligament).
If x or z are preceded by a vowel in the second syllable from the end of the word: reflēxus (reflex).
If the second syllable from the end of the word contains suffixes:

-āl: vertebrālis (vertebral)

-ār: articulāris (articular)

-īn: palatīnus (palatal)

-ōs: spinōsus (spinous)

-ūr: incisūra (incisure)

Nota bene:if the second syllable from the end of the word is long, it is stressed!

SHORT VOWELS

The second syllable from the end is short in such cases:

If one vowel precedes another vowel: facĭes (surface,face).
If a vowel precedes h, ch, ph, rh, th: stomăchus (stomach).
If a vowel precedes b, d, g, p, t, c with gliding l or r (bl, br, br, pr etc.): vertĕbra (vertebra).
If the second syllable from the end of the word contains suffixes:

-ĭl: simĭlis (similar)

-ĭd: chlorĭdum (chloride)

-ĭc: zygomatĭcus (zygomatic)

-ŏl:foveŏla (foveola)

-ŭl: muscŭlus (muscle)

STRESS

1)In two-syllable words the second syllable from the end of the word is stressed. In such case there is no need to define whether the syllable is long or short: ár-cus (arch).

2)In multy-syllable words the second syllable from the end of the word is stressed if this syllable is long: pro-cé-ssus (process).

3) In multy-syllable words the third syllable from the end of the word is syressed only if the second syllable is short: fá-cĭ-es.

THE EXERCISES TO BE DONE IN THE CLASS AND AT HOME

Determine whether the second syllable from the end of the word is long or short and stress it:

1. costa

processus
palpebra
fissura
fovea
tuberculum
alveolus
sanabilis
occipitalis
canaliculus
frigidus
multiplex
apex
biliaris
subserosus
lagoena
complexus
anhydrus
gangraena
medicina

2. Read the words and explain the stress rules:

quádruplex
nasális
maxílla
mandíbula
páries
mandibuláris
extérnus
núcleus
diaéta
thorácicus

11. lúcidus

12. uterínus

sélla
adipósus
medúlla
fractúra
thermómetrum
éxtraho
grácilis
cholédochus

LECTIO TERTIA ( III )

Topic: General Review of The Five Declensions of Nouns. The Structure of

Anatomical Terms: Noun + NounCombination.

Number of Hours: 2

Objective: to acquire the skills of differentiating nouns of the 1-5 th

declensions

and to construct terms with noun + noun combinations.

TOPIC CONTENT

General information about noun.
Five declensions of nouns: dictionary form, stem defining, gender inflections.
The structure of anatomical terms: combinations “noun + noun”.

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT NOUN

a) gender of the noun.

In the Latin language there are three genders of the noun: masculine, feminine, neuter:

masculine- genus masculinum

feminine- genus femininum

neuter- genus neutrum

In dictionaries noun gender is marked with the first letter of the gender name:

genus masculinum- m

genus femininum- f

genus neutrum- n

b) number of the noun.

In the Latin language nouns can be used in singular and plural forms:

singular form- numerus singularis (sing.)

plural form- numerus pluralis (plur.)

c)case of the noun.

In the Latin language all nouns have 6 cases.

Nominativus (N. or Nom.)- corresponds to the English Common Case who? what?

Genetivus (G. or. Gen.)- corresponds to the English “of phrase “.

Dativus (D. or Dat.)- is usually translated by means of prepositions “to” or “for” and the noun.

Accusativus (Acc.)- is usually dependent on a verb and is used to express the direct object.

Ablativus (Abl.)- is usually translated by means of prepositions “by”, “with”, “from”, “on” or “in”.

Vocativus is the case of the person addressed. It is not used in medical terminology.

Out of 6 cases in Latin in anatomical and histological nomenclature the most commonly used are two of them: Nom. and Gen. cases. In pharmacological and clinical terminology except Nom. and Gen., Acc. and Abl are also used.

d) declension of the noun.

There are 5 declensions in Latin. Each declension is distinguished by the way in which the nouns belonging to it form the Gen. sing. and inflection of the Gen. sing. :

I declension has inflection -ae in Gen. sing.

II declension has inflection -i in Gen. sing.

III declension has inflection -is in Gen. sing.

IV declension has inflection -us in Gen. sing.

V declension has inflection -ei in Gen.sing.

e)dictionary form of the noun.

In Latin nouns are written down in the dictionary form in the following succession : a full form of the noun in the Nominative case singular, comma, genitive inflection, gender: rib – costa, ae f, where “costa” is the word in the Nom. sing., “ae”- inflection of Gen. sing., “f”-indicates the gender.

f)stem of the noun.

We define a stem of each noun by removing the inflection of the genitive case singular :

in the first declension in Gen. sing. the inflection –ae;

in the second declension in Gen. sing. the inflection –i;

in the thirddeclension in Gen. sing. the inflection – is;

in the fourth declension in Gen. sing. the inflection – us;

in the fifth declension in Gen sing. the inflection – ei;

For instance: the word regio, onis f- region, Gen. sing. regionis, belongs to the third declension, that’s why inflection is should be removed, thus, the stem is region-.

NOUNS OF THE I –V DECLENSIONS

The first declension includes the nouns of the feminine gender with the inflection -ain Nom. sing. and inflection -ae in Gen. sing.: costa,ae f (rib).

The fifth declension includes the nouns of the feminine gender too, but with inflection - esin Nom. sing. and inflection -eiin Gen. sing.: facies, ei f (surface).

The second declension includes the nouns of masculine and neuter genders. The nouns of masculine gender have inflection -us(most words) or -er in Nom.sing. and inflection -iin Gen. sing.: musculus, i m (muscle), cancer, cri m (cancer).

Nota bene! If a noun of masculine gender in Nom. sing. has inflection -er, in other cases (Gen. and Dat. etc.) the letter -e- can either be preserved or dropped. In such cases in dictionary form we indicate a part of the stem: cancer, cri m (-e- is dropped), puer, eri m (-e- is not dropped).

The nouns of neuter gender in Nom. sing. have inflection -um or- on(in words of Greek origin) and -iin Gen. sing.: tuberculum, i n (tubercle), skeleton, i n (skeleton).

The fourth declension includes the nouns of masculine and neuter genders too. Masculine nouns have inflection -usin Nom. sing. and also inflection -usin Gen. sing.: processus, us m (process).

Nouns of neuter gender have inflection -uin Non. sing. and -usin Gen. sing.: cornu, us n (horn).

To the third declension belong nouns of all three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter) and can have 26 different inflections in Nom. sing. and inflection -is in Gen. sing.: cartilago, ĭnis f (cartilage), foramen, ĭnis n (foramen), apex, ĭcis m (apex).

Inflexions of the Nom. and Gen. cases of the nouns belonging to five declensions

(singular form only)

Declension / I / II / III / IV / V
Gender / f / m n / m, f, n / m n / f
Nom. sing. / -a / -us -um
-er -on / different
( 26 ) / -us -u / -es
Gen. sing. / -ae / -i -i / -is / -us - us / -ei

THE STRUCTURE OF ANATOMICAL TERMS: COMBINATIONS “NOUN + NOUN”

In Latin anatomical and histological terminology “noun + noun” combinations are used which may consist of two or more nouns. The structure of such terms is the following: noun in Nom. + noun in Gen., for instance: body of the vertebra, body- noun in Nom. sing., of the vertebra- noun in Gen. sing.: corpus vertebrae.

The order of constructing such terms is the following:

1)to write down all words in their dictionary forms;

2)to determine the case and number of each word;

3)to translate as follows: first place is occupied by the noun in Nom. sing., all other nouns are written in Gen. sing. For instance, translate the term “angle of the rib”:

1)angulus, i m-angle

costa, ae f-rib

2)angle-Nom sing. (what?)

rib-Gen. sing. (of what?)

3)angulus costae

THE EXERCISES TO BE DONE IN THE CLASS AND AT HOME

Determine the declension of the nouns:

1. membrana, ae f
2 .truncus,i m
3 .abdomen, ĭnis n
4 .sacrum, i n
5. visus, us m
6. neuron, i n
7. gelu, us n
8. anulus, i m
9. plasma, ătis n
10. intestinum, i n / 11. diencephalon, i n
12. retina, ae f
13. phalanx, gis f
14. sanies, ei f
15. textus, us m
16. duodenum, i n
17. ala, ae f
18. osteon, i n
19. status, us m
20. species, ei f

2. Determine the declension and the stem of the nouns:

fundus, i m
magister, tri m
capsula, ae f
tegmen, ĭnis n
acies, ei f

visus, us m
olecrănon, i n
fibula, ae f
tempus, ŏris n
labrum, i n

3. Determine the declension and gender of the nouns:

1.acromion, i
2. vesica, ae
3. hiatus, us
4.facies, ei
5.genu,us / 6.phthisiater, tri
7.prominentia, ae
8.metencephalon, i
9.olfactus, us
10. series, ei

Translate anatomical and histological terms from Latin into English:

1. crista tuberculi
2. cornu cartilagĭnis
3. caput cornus
4. musculus linguae
5. cranium hominis / 6. facies pulmōnis
7. ramus musculi
8. tuberculum maxillae
9. incisura mandibulae
10. angulus scapulae

Translate into Latin, define the combination” noun + noun”:

1. sulcus of the nerve
2. tubercle of the rib
3. articulation of the knee
4. ligament of the shoulder
5. arch of the vertebra / 6. root of the lung
7. angle of the mandible
8. apex of the tongue
9. body of the cartilage
10. neck of the shoulder

VOCABULARY

The first declension

costa, ae f rib

crista, ae f crest

incisura, ae f incisure

lingua, ae f language, tongue

mandibŭla, ae f lower jaw, mandible

maxīlla, ae f upper jaw, maxilla

scapula, ae f shoulder-blade

spina, ae f spine

vertebra, ae f vertebra

The second declension

angulus, i m angle

musculus,i m muscle

nervus,i m nerve

ramus, i m branch

sulcus, i m sulcus

collum,i n neck

cranium, i n skull

ligamentum, i n ligament

sternum,i n sternum

tuberculum, i n tubercle

The third declension

apex, ĭcis m apex

homo, ĭnis m man

pulmo, ōnis m lung

articulatio, ōnis f joint,articulation

cartilago, ĭnis f cartilage

radix, cis f root

regio, ōnis f region

caput, ĭtis n head

corpus, ŏris n body

foramen, ĭnis n foramen

The fourth declension

arcus,us m arch

ductus,us m duct

processus,us m process

sinus,us m sinus

cornu,us n horn

genu,us n knee

The fifth declension

facies, ei f face, surface

LATIN APHORISMS AND PROFESSOINAL SAYINGS

Anamnesis vitae– anamnesis of life: patient’s data collected by means of questioning him and his ralatives.

Anamnesis morbi– anamnesis of disease: detailes of illness obtained through the way of questioningthe patient himself and his family.

Curriculum vitae– the way of life, biography.

LECTIO QUARTA (IV)

Topic: General Review Of The 1st Class Adjectives. The Structure Of

Anatomical And Histological Terms Comprising Of The Noun And Adjective.

Number of Hours:2

Objective: to acqiure the skills of differentiating the first

class adjectives. Adjective + Noun (I-V declensions).

TOPIC CONTENT

Grammar categories of adjectives.
Adjectives of the first class: gender inflections, dictionary form, stem defining.

GRAMMAR CATEGORIES

Latin adjective has three genders: genus masculinum (m), genus femininum (f), genus neutrum (n). Latin adjective is declined like the noun (according to the cases).

In the Latin language adjectives are divided into two classes: I-st class is the one declined according to the first and second declensions of nouns; the second class includes the adjectives declined according to the third declension of nouns.

Nota bene!There are no adjectives declined according to the IV and V declensions.

FIRST CLASS ADJECTIVES

To the first class belong adjectives with the following inflections in Nom. sing.: m- us, er, f-a, n-um, for instance: spinosus-spinous (m), spinosa (f), spinosum (n); dexter- right (m), dextra (f), dextrum (n).