Hitler’s Germany, 1929-1939

Key issue: To what extent did Germans benefit from Nazi rule in the 1930s?

a)Economic Policy

Hitler had come to power in an economic crisis by promising jobs for the unemployed. Once he was appointed Chancellor, this became a priority. Hitler and the Nazis spent vast amounts of public money on job creation schemes. State finances were organised to pay for this by the talented economist, Dr. Hjalmar Schact. The amount spent doubled between 1933 and 1938. Hitler intended to build 7,000km of autobahn (motorways). The German Labour Front organised and directed workers into jobs. These included forestry work, water projects, building new hospitals, schools and sports stadiums. The organisation of these projects also provided jobs. By 1939, the Labour Front had 44,500 paid officials.

Another of Hitler’s policies was to get rid of the Treaty of Versailles. He started a programme of rearmament upon taking power, which was officially revealed in 1935. Conscription was also introduced in this yr. The army grew from 100,000 in 1933 to 1.4 million in 1939. Huge amounts were spent on producing military equipment such as aircraft and tanks. The increase in military expenditure also stimulated other industries, such as coalmines, steel and textile mills; this provided further employment opportunities. Between 1933 and 1939, coal and chemical production doubled; oil, iron and steel trebled; and iron-ore mining increased 500%. Germans began to feel that the country was finally emerging from the humiliation of the Great War and Treaty of Versailles.

Unemployment fell from 5 million in 1933 to 400,000 in 1938 and the Nazis claimed a labour shortage. However, while the Nazi schemes had been successful, there are some problems in using these official German statistics. Some groups were not included, such as Jewish people who were dismissed from their jobs. When the Jews were stripped of their German citizenship, none of them was counted in the figures. Women who left employment with State financial offers to get married and raise a family were also omitted, as were the population held in concentration camps.

Hitler’s aim was to make Germany self-sufficient: autarky. This was a reaction to the Depression following the 1929 crash and the cost of imports, but also because he remembered the devastating impact of the British blockade of German ports in the 1stWorld War. Autarky was the aim of a 4 yr plan announced in 1936. Goering was placed in charge of this. The plan enjoyed limited success. Agricultural imports fell from 35% to 25% of the total output and German scientists worked on schemes to produce ersatz (substitute) materials to replace imported products. Experiments were carried out to produce petrol from coal, and synthetic rubber and wool were produced in large quantities, but they were more expensive and inferior to the natural product. However, by 1939 when war broke out, Germany still imported over 30% of the raw materials the country needed. There was not the quantity of raw materials within existing German borders for this scheme to work. It became clear to Hitler that the only solution was to take over countries that produced the raw materials and food needed. The policy of lebensraum(living space) therefore became closely linked to economic and foreign policy.

Hitler’s economic policies were popular among the German people. The working classes benefited from the new employment opportunities and everyone began to feel a new sense of national pride, particularly with the rearmament measures. Farmers and businessmen liked Hitler’s policies. German farmers, as long as they were Aryan and obedient, enjoyed security of tenure, easy credit and high prices for their products.Businessmen received huge profitable orders in return for their contributions to Nazi Party funds. Income tax concessions and loans from the government also assisted industrial recovery. Rigid control of prices and wages kept inflation in check. However, it was not simply a ‘Nazi economic miracle’. Hitler was fortunate that the German economy, like the rest of the world has, was beginning to recover by 1933.

b)Social policy

Many Germans believed that Nazi rule was improving people’s lives; unemployment had been drastically reduced and few people were starving. Many people appreciated that actions were being taken to improve their economic situation. From July 1935, it became compulsory for all German men between the ages of 18 and 25 to do 6 months’ work on practical projects. They were not paid wages, just pocket money, which was never very popular. However, it did provide a sense of purpose for the unemployed.

Hitler delivered lower unemployment, which gained him popularity among the industrial workers. He developed this loyalty with a variety of initiatives. The Strength through Joy (KDF)organisation was part of the German Labour Front. It attempted to provide leisure time activities. Holidays and cruises were sold to the workers at a low cost, along with concerts, theatre visits and sporting events. As part of this movement, Hitler wanted more Germans to have their own cars. 1,000s saved 5 marks a week in a scheme to buy a Volkswagen Beetle, the ‘people’s car’. Ferdinand Porsche designed it. No workers ever received their cars as production was halted in 1939 because of the outbreak of war. The Beauty of Labourmovement aimed to improve working conditions in factories, by introducing washing facilities and low-cost canteens. All of these initiatives enjoyed genuine popularity. However, there was a price to pay. Workers had lost their trade unions and they could not strike for better pay and conditions. In some areas, workers were prevented from moving to better-paid jobs by the DAF. Wages were comparatively low, although prices were strictly controlled. Working hr increased and by the late 1930s, some workers grumbled that their standard of living was still lower than in the 1920s.

During the mid-1930s, many Germans were pleased with the effects of Nazi policies. Unemployment had fallen and national pride was rising. This was particularly boosted by the 1936 Olympic Games. When Hitler moved troops into the demilitarised Rhineland in 1936, Germans felt more secure from attack. Pride grew dramatically with the Anschluss(union of Austria and Germany in 1938). These events helped Hitler in his aim of achieving a sense of national community or Volksgemeinschaft. He wanted people to see themselves as Germans, not as members of a social class or profession. Hitler wanted people to be so proud of belonging to such a great nation, that they would put the country’s needs before their own.

The effects of Nazi policies on the lives of women

The Nazis preferred women to stick to what was seen as their ‘natural’ occupations of being wives and mothers. ‘Kinder, Kirche and Küche’ summed up Nazi attitudes towards women (Children, Church and Kitchen). Propaganda posters displayed images of the ideal Nazi family.

The Nazis were worried about the falling birth rate and wanted to expand the population of ‘racially-pure’ Aryans. Incentives were introduced to encourage women to have children. For example, the Law for the Reduction of Unemployment in June 1933 introduced interest-free loans of up to 1,000 Reichmarks for young married couples on the condition that the wife gave up work. A ¼ of the debt was cancelled each time a child was born. The most productive mothers were awarded special medals at a ceremony every yr on the birthday of Hitler’s mother. Those who had 8children were awarded the ‘Gold Cross’. Laws against abortion were strictly enforced. From 1936, the Nazis opened special maternity homes designed to be breeding centres for pure Aryan children, where racially approved mothers were matched with SS men.

German women who held positions of responsibility were sacked from their jobs. This happened to 1,000s of female doctors and civil servants in 1933. The no. of female teachers was gradually reduced. From 1936, women could no longer be judges or serve on juries.

There were even campaigns to affect the way women dressed and looked. Hair should be worn in plaits or a bun; not dyed or permed. Make-up and trousers were discouraged. Slimming was discouraged as women had to capable of healthy child rearing.

However, the Nazis did not always manage to successfully implement their ideas on women. The priority given to rearmament meant that there was a shortage of building materials for houses. Young couples wishing to have a large family could not always afford a suitable house. In the later 1930s, when there was a shortage of workers, more women re-entered the workplace. In 1937, the Nazis had to change their marriage loans scheme so that women could continue working.

The effects of Nazi policies on German culture

The Nazi regime was totally opposed to the culture, which had developed in Weimar Germany in the 1920s. In this period, Berlin was famous for its exciting nightlife and the film industry entered a golden age. The Weimar constitution had allowed free expression of ideas; writers, poets and artists flourished. Hitler saw this as an immoral time. During the Nazi dictatorship, culture was restricted through censorship and propaganda. Modern art was dismissed as ‘degenerate’. American music was banned, including jazz, which was targeted as being ‘black’ music. Some artists, authors and scientists emigrated, including Albert Einstein.

Even discounting the claims of Nazi propaganda, the regime did become popular. The skilful propaganda was 1 reason for this, but another was that Hitler had fulfilled his promises. Germany was given strong leadership, unemployment disappeared, big business received contracts and Germany rearmed, moving from triumph to triumph in foreign affairs. He had also dealt with the ‘threat’ from Jews and Communists. The majority of the population seemed willing to accept their loss of freedom in return for these benefits. The negatives – political, social and cultural – only became prominent in some people’s minds in the later 1930s, when the Nazis had achieved totalitarian control.

c)Racial Persecution

Hitler had made his ideas about race clear before taking power. These appeared in his book, Mein Kampf, as well as in speeches, pamphlets and posters. Hitler thought that the Jews were an inferior race and that Aryans were the superior race. He claimed that the Jewish people had joined with Communists to cause Germany’s defeat in the 1stWorld War.

When Hitler came to power in 1933, there were 500,000 Jews in Germany, less than 1% of the total population. Some of these had important positions in society in businesses and the professions. Some worked as doctors, lawyers and bankers. Hitler used propaganda to claim that they were running society and the economy.

Hitler had no timetable set out for actions against the Jews; the policy evolved in stages.

  • April 1933 – Official 1 day boycott of Jewish shops, lawyers and doctors throughout Germany. After this, members of the SA stood outside shops and prevented customers from entering.
  • June 1933 – Jewish people banned from the civil service, teaching, broadcasting and newspapers.
  • 1934 – Anti-Jewish propaganda increased.
  • Sep 1935 – The Nuremburg Laws provided legal restrictions on Jewish people. These included:

- The Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour: this banned marriages and sexual relations between Jews and Aryans.

- The Reich Citizenship Law stripped Jewish people (this was defined as anyone with 1 or more Jewish grandparents) of their German citizenship. They were now ‘subjects’ of the Reich, which gave them fewer rights.

  • 1936 – A lull in the persecution of the Jews during the Berlin Olympic Games. Anti-Jewish slogans were removed from the streets and Jewish shops and businesses.
  • Sep 1937 – Many Jewish businesses were seized.
  • June-July 1938 – Jewish doctors, dentists and lawyers were forbidden to treat Aryans.
  • Oct 1938 – Jews had to have a red letter ‘J’ stamped on their passports.
  • Nov 1938 – Kristallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass).This happened after a young Jewish man shot and killed a German embassy official in Paris. Josef Goebbels urged a wide scale and brutal response. He announced that there should be demonstrations against the Jews on 9th Nov. The violence that this encouraged led to the attacking of 8,000 Jewish shops and homes and most of the synagogues in Germany. About 100 Jewish people were killed and over 20,000 were arrested and sent to concentration camps. Much of the property damaged on Kristallnacht was rented from German owners. The Nazis fined the Jewish community 1 billion Reichmarks to repair the damage. Any remaining Jewish businesses were confiscated and Jewish children were only allowed to attend Jewish schools. Jewish people were expected to do the worst jobs and German people were encouraged to treat them badly. This was even more so after the Anschluss and the policies extended into Austria.

By 1939, Jewish people found it impossible to earn a living or obtain even basic supplies for living. It was difficult to get food, clothing and medicine and they became social outcasts. In 1939, Jewish people were officially encouraged to emigrate. Not all could afford to do so, or get visas. The 1stmass arrests of Jewish people took place in Mar 1939. Nearly 30,000 Jewish men and boys were sent to concentration camps at this time.

The Nazis also acted against other groups who were seen as undesirable. Gypsies were unpopular in German society because they did not have regular jobs and moved around. Many Germans were happy when the Nuremburg Laws were extended to gypsies. They were increasingly persecuted in the later 1930s. Other people, such as beggars, the homeless, prostitutes and homosexuals were rounded up and sent to concentration camps for hard labour.

Those with physical disabilities or mental handicaps were seen as a threat to Aryan superiority if they were allowed to have children. A law was passed in July 1933 to allow compulsory sterilisation. This law was used for people with depression, epilepsy, blindness, deafness and physical disabilities. By 1937, almost 200,000 sterilisations had been performed on men and women. In 1939, a euthanasia or ‘mercy killing’ programme began. Mentally handicapped babies or children were killed by injection or allowed to starve to death.

The mistreatment of Jews and other ‘undesirable’ groups got worse very quickly after the war started in Sep 1939. In Germany, all Jews were ordered to wear the Star of David on their clothing to mark them out. After defeating Poland, Polish Jews were rounded up and transported to the major cities. They were herded into sealed areas, called ghettos. The able-bodied Jews were used for slave labour but the young, the old and the sick were simply left to die from hunger and disease. In Dec 1941, Germany invaded the USSR. German forces had order to round up and shoot Jewish people. Special SS units, called Einsatzgruppen, carried out the shooting. By the autumn of 1941, mass shootings were taking place all over occupied Eastern Europe.

In Jan 1942, senior Nazis met at Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin, for a conference to discuss what they called the ‘Final Solution’ to the ‘Jewish Question’. At the Wannsee Conference, Himmler, head of the SS and Gestapo, was put in charge of the systematic killing of all Jews within Germany and German-occupied territory. Slave labour and death camps were built at Auschwitz, Treblinka, Chelmno and other places. The old, the sick and young children were killed immediately. The able-bodied were 1stused as slave labour. Some were used for appalling medical experiments. 6 million Jews, 500,000 European gypsies and countless political prisoners, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals and Russian and Polish prisoners of war were sent to these camps to be worked to death, gassed or shot.

d)The effect of the 2ndWorld War on the civilian population: bombing, rationing & propaganda

In 1939, Germany went to war. In Sep 1939, rationing was introduced for most foodstuffs and for other items. Extra rations were given to workers in heavy industries, expectant or breastfeeding mothers, and those who were ill. Because of rationing, 2 out of 5 Germans ate better than before the war! However, the diet became increasingly monotonous – vegetables with black rye bread, small amounts of meat and butter and a single egg each week. Clothes rationing was introduced in Nov 1939. There was a complicated points system and some items such as shoes and winter coats were almost impossible to buy. The 1st 2 yr of the conflict went well for Germany; as Germany conquered other countries, food and luxury goods such as dresses, furs and perfumes were imported and could be bought on the black market.

In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union; this was a massive gamble. He was hoping for a lightning victory, as he had achieved in Western Europe. Instead, he became bogged down in 4 yr long battle, which tore the heart out of his army. By the end of 1942, Germany’s war was going badly. New hospital trains brought 1,000s of wounded Germans home from the war in the USSR. People got more used to seeing wounded soldiers and women in mourning. Various propaganda campaigns were launched to keep up morale and encourage people to support the war effort. Goebbels claimed that, because of this, between Dec 1941 and Jan 1942, Germans gave 1.5 million furs and 67 million woollen garments to help the Germany army in Russia. Other campaigns urged people to save fuel, work harder and even try to avoid tooth decay. At this stage in the war, the German people began to hear and see less of Hitler. Goebbels broadcast his old speeches, but Hitler was increasingly preoccupied with the detail of war. Extra food rations were given out atXmas 1942 to help keep up morale.