Chapter Four
Job Analysis and Job Design
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define job analysis and job design.
2. Distinguish among a position, a job,
and an occupation.
3. Describe several common uses of a
job analysis.
4. Define yob description and job
specification.
5. Identify four frequently used
methods of job analysis.
6. Discuss why O*NET was developed
and summarize what it is.
Chapter Outline
Basic Terminology Job Analysis
Products of Job Analysis
Job Analysis Methods
The ADA and Job Analysis
Potential Problems with Job Analysis Job Design
Job Scope and Job Depth
Sociotechnical Approach to Job Design
The Physical Work Environment
Alternative Work Schedules and Arrangements
7. Define essential functions and
reasonable accommodation as
interpreted under the Americans with
Disabilities Act.
8. Identify several problems frequently
associated with job analysis.
9. Define yob scope and yob depth and
explain their relationship to job design.
10. Explain the sociotechnical approach
to job design.
11. Distinguish among the following
types of alternative work schedules:
flextime, telecommuting, job sharing,
and condensed workweek.
12. Define the term contingent worker.
Summary of Learning Objectives Review Questions Discussion Questions
Incident 4.1 The Tax Assessor's Office
Incident 4.2 Turnover Problems Exercise 4.1: Performing a Job Analysis Exercise 4.2: Writing a Job Description Exercise 4.3: Introduction to O*NET Notes and Additional Readings On the Job: Sample Job Analysis Questionnaire
job analysis
Process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job.
The first step in the process of acquiring the organization's human resources is to specify precisely the kind of work that needs to be done and just how that work should be done. Job analysis and job design are the processes used to determine this.
Job analysis is "the process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job. It is the determination of the tasks that comprise the job and the skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required of the holder for successful job performance."1 Put another way, job analysis is the process of determining, through observation and study, the pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job.
63
64 Part One Introduction and Background of Human Resources
job design
Process of structuring work and designating the specific work activities of an individual or group of individuals to achieve certain organizational objectives.
Job analysis serves as the beginning point of many human resource functions. Jobs must be analyzed before many of the other human resource functions can be performed. For example, effective recruitment is not possible unless the recruiter knows and communicates the requirements of the job. Similarly, it is impossible to design basic wage systems without having clearly defined jobs.
Job design is the process of structuring work and designating the specific work activities^ of an individual or group of individuals to achieve certain organizational objectives. Job designl addresses the basic question of how the job is to be performed, who is to perform it, and where-* it is to be performed.
Job analysis and job design are directly linked to each other. In practice, most job analyses! are performed on existing jobs that have previously been designed. However, it is not unusual} for a job to be redesigned as the result of a recent job analysis. For example, a job analysis; might reveal that the current method of performing a job (the job design) is inefficient or con-j tains unnecessary tasks. New technology can also cause the content of a job to change.
Job analysis and job design processes are usually conducted by industrial engineers andj entry level human resource specialists. However, because both of these processes are basic tol so many human resource functions, every human resource manager should have a thorough;' understanding of them.
I
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
micromotion
Simplest unit of work; involves very elementary movements, such as reaching, grasping, positioning, or releasing an object.
element
Aggregation of two or more micromotions; usually thought of as a complete entity, such as picking up or transporting an object.
task
Consisting of one or more elements; one of the distinct activities that constitute logical and necessary steps in the performance of work by an employee. A task is performed whenever human effort, physical or mental, is exerted for a specific purpose.
Today, the word job has different meanings depending on how, when, or by whom it is used. It isj often used interchangeably with the words position and task. This section defines terms frequently,; encountered in job design and job analysis and shows how these terms relate to each other.
The simplest unit of work is the micromotion. A micromotion involves a very elementary! movement, such as reaching, grasping, positioning, or releasing an object. An aggregation ofl two or more micromotions forms an element. An element is a complete entity, such as pick*! ing up, transporting, and positioning an item. A grouping of work elements makes up a wort] task. Related tasks comprise the duties of a job.
Distinguishing between tasks and duties is not always easy. It is sometimes helpful to viewj tasks as subsets of duties. For example, suppose one duty of a receptionist is to handle alia incoming correspondence. One task, as part of this duty, would be to respond to all routinej inquiries. Duties, when combined with responsibilities (obligations to be performed), de«! fine a position. A group of positions that are identical with respect to their major tasks andj responsibilities form a job. The difference between a position and a job is that a job may 1 held by more than one person, whereas a position cannot. For example, an organization may! have two receptionists performing the same job; however, they occupy two separate positions^ A group of similar jobs forms an occupation. Because the job of receptionist requires simila skills, effort, and responsibility in different organizations, being a receptionist may be viewed| as an occupation. Figure 4.1 graphically shows the relationships among elements, tasks, < ties, responsibilities, positions, jobs, and occupations.
JOB ANALYSIS
duties
One or more tasks performed in carrying out a job responsibility.
responsibilities
Obligations to perform certain tasks and assume certain duties.
position
Collection of tasks and responsibilities constituting the total work assignment of a single employee.
Job analysis is the process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating to thej nature of a specific job. It involves determining the tasks that comprise the job and the skilli knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required of the holder for successful job performance. J The end product of a job analysis is a written description of the actual requirements of the job.] As mentioned in the chapter introduction, job analysis is the beginning point of manjl human resource functions. Specifically, data obtained from job analysis form the basis for J variety of human resource activities.3 These activities include the following:
Job definition. A job analysis results in a description of the duties and responsibilities of j the job. Such a description is useful to the current jobholders and their supervisors as weujj as to prospective employees.
Chapter 4 job Analysis and Job Design 65
TasksHicroraotions
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' Duties
FIGURE 4.1 Relationships among Different Job Components
job
Group of positions that are identical with respect to their major or significant tasks and responsibilities and sufficiently alike to justify their being covered by a single analysis. One or many persons may be employed in the same job.
occupation
A grouping of similar jobs or job classes.
recruitment
Process of seeking and attracting a pool of people from which qualified candidates for job vacancies can be chosen.
selection
Process of choosing from those available the individuals who are most likely to perform successfully in a job.
orientation
Introduction of new employees to the organization, work unit, and job.
training
Learning process that involves the acquisition of skills, concepts, rules, or attitudes to increase employee performance.
Job redesign. A job analysis often indicates when a job needs to be redesigned. Recruitment. Regardless of whether a job to be filled has been in existence or is newly created its requirements must be defined as precisely as possible for recruitment to be effective. A job analysis not only identifies the job requirements but also outlines the skills needed to perform the job. This information helps identify characteristics sought in the people to be recruited.
Selection and placement. Selection is basically a matter of properly matching an individual with a job. For the process to be successful, the job and its requirements must be clearly and precisely known. A job analysis determines the importance of different skills and abilities. Once it has been completed, various candidates can be compared more objectively. Orientation. Effective job orientation cannot be accomplished without a clear understanding of the job requirements. The duties and responsibilities of a job must be clearly defined before a new employee can be taught how to perform the job.
Training. Job analysis affects many aspects of training. Whether or not a current or potential jobholder needs additional training can be decided only after the specific requirements of the job have been determined through a job analysis. Similarly, establishing training objectives depends on a job analysis. Another training-related use of job analysis is to help determine whether a problem is occurring because of a training need or for some other reason.
Career counseling. Managers and human resource specialists are in a much better position to counsel employees about their careers when they have a complete understanding of the different jobs in the organization. Similarly, employees can better appreciate their career options when they understand the exact requirements of other jobs. Employee safety. A thorough job analysis often uncovers unsafe practices and/or environmental conditions associated with a job. Focusing precisely on how a job is done usually uncovers any unsafe procedures.
66 Part One Introduction and Background aj Human iResources
tabli;:
Information Provided by a Job Analysis
Area of Information
Job title and location Organizational relationship
Relation to other jobs Job summary
information concerning job requirements
Contents
Name of job and where it is located.
A brief explanation of the number of persons supervised
(if applicable) and the job title(s) of the position(s) supervised.
A statement concerning supervision received.
Describes and outlines the coordination required by the job.
Condensed explanation of the content of the job.
The content of this area varies greatly from job to job and from
organization to organization. Typically it includes information
on such topics as machines, tools, and materials; mental
complexity and attention required; physical demands; and
working conditions.
job description
Written synopsis of the nature and requirements of a job.
job specification
Description of the competency, educational, and experience qualifications the incumbent must possess to perform the job.
Performance appraisal. The objective of performance appraisal is to evaluate an individual employee's performance on a job. A prerequisite is a thorough understanding of exactly what the employee is supposed to do. Then and only then can a fair evaluation] be made of how an individual is performing.
Compensation. A proper job analysis helps ensure that employees receive fair compensation for their jobs. Job analysis is the first step in determining the relative worth of a job by identifying its level of difficulty, its duties and responsibilities, and the skills and abilities required to perform the job. Once the worth of a job has been established relative to other jobs, the employer can determine an equitable wage or salary schedule.
As the above list demonstrates, many of the major human resource functions depend to son extent on a sound job analysis program.
When performing a job analysis, the job and its requirements (as opposed to the characti istics of the person currently holding the job) are studied. The analyst lists the tasks that < prise the job and determines the skills, personality characteristics, educational background! and training necessary for successfully performing the job. The initial stage of a job analys: should "report the job as it exists at the time of the analysis, not as it should exist, not has existed in the past, and not as it exists in similar establishments."4 Table 4.1 outlines i general information a job analysis provides.
Products of Job Analysis
Job analysis involves not only analyzing job content but also reporting the results of the anaW sis. These results are normally presented in the form of a job description and a job specific^ tion. A job description concentrates on describing the job as it is currently being performe It explains, in written form, what the job is called, what it requires to be done, where it isl be done, and how it is to be done. While the formats for job descriptions vary somewha most job descriptions contain sections that include the following: the job name, a brief sun mary description of the job, a listing of job duties and responsibilities, and an explanation oij organizational relationships pertinent to the job. A job specification concentrates on knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to perform the. Knowledge refers to identifiable factual information necessary to perform the job. Skills i specific proficiencies necessary for performing the tasks that make up the job. Abilities re| to general and enduring capabilities for doing the job. Other characteristics include any i pertinent characteristics not covered under knowledge, skills, and abilities. A job specifics] may be prepared as a separate document or, as is more often the case, as the concluding i tion of a job description. Table 4.2 summarizes the information typically contained in ; description (including the job specification).
A potential problem with all job descriptions is that they may become outdated. Often I job description is not periodically updated to reflect any changes that have occurred in the jq A good practice is to have the jobholder and his or her supervisor review the most curn job description annually and determine whether the description needs updating. Ordina
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