Irwin Chapter 2 The Origins of Parapsyhologial Research
Spiritualism - A belief that human existence survives death and that contact with the "other" world is possible.
Two Major Factors Increased Interest in Parapsychology as a Science:
1. Mesmerism - demonstrated that (a). conditions could be altered to test the "authenticiity" of PSI phenomena and (b). such phenomena could be studied outside of occultist and quasi-religious contexts.
2. Spiritualism - New scientific knowledge was challenging religious belief. Parapsychology offered an appealing compromise. The basic tenets of religion could be tested scientifically.
Mental Mediums - gain access to information they could not access by "normal" means.
Physical Mediums - In addition to the above, have the ability to influence the physical environment (apporting objects, levitating tables, etc.). Vanished after the 1940s till the Geller episode of the 1970s.
DanielHome(pronounced Hume) - Notable physical medium on a "glorious mission" to convert people to spiritualism. Didn't charge fees but was a frequent "houseguest" among the well to do.
The Brownings and Home- Elizabeth Barrett Browning (the poet) was a fan of Home's. Her poet husband Robert pronounced him a fraud and attacked him in his poem "Mr. Sludge the Medium." Home counterattacked in a Spiritualist magazine.
Leonora Piper - Most well known American mental medium and most well studied of all mental mediums. William James himself was impressed by her but otherwise occupied. Despite study by others. she was never really discredited. Irwin: most importantly, her case points out the difficulties of scientifically exploring mediumship.
Helene Smith - A European "channeling" medium whose court of Louis XIV spirit guide "Leopold" (the deceased Italian who couldn't understand Italian) was suspect. Cryptomnesia may have played a role in her reports. She claimed to have spiritually traveled to Mars but the Martian language she learned was clearly based on French (her native language).
Cryptomnesia - is amnesia (lack of memory) for materials that may have been seen or read years before.
Dissociative States - may have been experienced by both Piper and Smith.
Charles Bailey - Physical medium whose specialty was apporting objects while restrained. His performance was impressive but eventually suspicions arose andhis image deteriorated.
Irwin Chapter 9 The Survival Hypothesis
The Survival Hypothesis - Idea that life or "consciousness" in some form survives death of the physical body. There are "religious" implications, but Irwin sees them as NOT relevant to the study of parapsychology.
"Proxy Sitters" - To control for the possibility of a medium's information actually being obtained via ESP from one of the "sitters," the medium is asked to obtain information known only to a third party not present at the seance (the "proxy sitter").
Drop in Communicators -A discarnate personality unknown to medium or sitters who "drops in" uninvited at a seance. If information provided is verified, the survival hypothesis is supported.
Super ESP Hypothesis - An alternative explanation of seance phenomena. Basically, a medium, via ESP, could reach out to persons not present and at any distance for information. If true, the value of both "proxy sitters" and "drop in communications" are diminished.
Xenoglossy -The medium speaking, writing in, or understanding a language known to the deceased but not to him or her. Irwin says the "super ESP hyp." cannot account for this, but, given its definition, I don't see why not.
Cross Correspondences - Two or more mediums getting messages from one or more "discarnates" which seem to relate to each other in some way (e.g., one message may be meaningless without the other).
Experimental Tests of the Survival Hypothesis (2):
Thouless's Cipher Test - While alive person A creates a coded message (only he knows the code). If after his death, a medium can "decipher" the message, the survival hypothesis is supported (Houdini did something similar). In 1996 one of Thouless's codes "Black Beauty" was deciphered. However, it came out that the solution was computer generated by cryptographic expert.
Stevenson's Combination Lock Test -The combination is known only to the person conducting the test and is communicated only after death. Superior to an older technique in whichthe departed's message was sealed in an envelope. Once opened, the test is over. The lock test continues to be open to an almost infinite number of future trials.
The Survival Hypothesis and the Super ESP Hypothesis - Progress will be slow or non-existent. One unknown (Super ESP) is called upon to explain another unknown (seance communication). Neither can be "falsified" by the scientific method so most hypotheses would seem to be untestable (Alvarado & Martinez-Taboas, 1983).
Irwin Chapter 10 Poltergeist Experiences
Poltergeist -Literally, noisy, boisterous, troubling spirit or ghost.
Sauchie Poltergeist - A case described by Irwin. As with MOST cases, the incident takes its name from the "town" within which it occurred (less often from the family name of the "agent" or "focus" of the experience. This may be more the case on "the continent" (Europe) than in the U.S.
William Roll - American parapsychologist who has accumulated the largest collection of poltergeist case histories.
Types of Experiences (2):
1. Place Centered - A building or other location is the focus. Who is affected is of secondary importance (haunted houses).
2. Person Centered - More common than place centered, a particular person or family is/are the focus. 79% of Roll's cases had a "focus" or "agent."
3. Some cases combine characteristics of both types.
4. Place Centered poltergeist phenomena are "RARER" but more "DURABLE" than the "focus" or "agent" centered type.
The "Linger" Effect - activity continues for a time even after the person of "focus" has left the area.
Theories of the Poltergeist Experience:
1. Fraud - The Tina Resch case reported by Hines, though perpetrated by a child, was fraud.
2. Misinterpretations - Often, seismic (earthquake) activity or house "settling" and related events are misinterpreted as poltergeist activity.
3. Persinger's Neuropsychological Misinterpretation Hypothesis - Seismic activity sets up "geomagnetic fields" which affect people's "temporal lobe functioning."
4. Spirits - The poltergeist is the discarnate spirit of a deceased person.
5. RSPK (Recurrent Spontaneous Psychokinesis) - Poltergeist phenomena reflect unconscious psychological tension or conflict (on the part of the "agent") being released onto nearby objects as PK activity. Nandor Fodor connects this to Freudian psychosexual theory and refers to it as "poltergeist psychosis."
6. Roll's Neurological RSPK Theory - The "conflict" that causes RSPK is only a consequence of severe epileptic like CNS disturbances.
Irwin Chapter 11 Near Death Experiences
What Triggers the NDE? - Seems to be not so much that the person is actually dying BUT that he/she "perceives" his/her life to be under serious threat.
Kenneth Ring & Michael Sabom - Are the leading researchers in this field, have collected many case studies.
General Characteristics of the NDE (Moody, 1975):
1. Feeling of Peace and Well Being - The most common of the NDE characteristics (100% in Sabom's sample).
2. Leaving one's body - Occurrence is variable ranging from 37 to 99 percent in studies.
3. Floating or moving through space OR a tunnel - The majority of both Ring and Sabom's subjects reported "darkness" or a "void" as opposed to a "tunnel" or similar structure.
4. Seeing a "Light" - About 1/3 experience this.
5. Panoramic Life Review (life flashing before one's eyes)- Not actually that common at about 25% but that this occurs is a popular "Folk Belief."
6. Sense of a Presence and Communication - Most often with deceased friends and relatives. Usually has to do with the issue of death vs. returning to the living.
The "Transcendental Realm" -About 1/3 experience being in a beautiful "pastoral realm" with trees, flowers, and music. This is popular image of the afterlife. This experience is NOT correlated with prior religious beliefs. Increased religiosity seems more a CONSEQUENCE of the NDE than a CAUSE.
Pope's (1991-94) Research -Compared three groups: 1. Close to death but had no NDE, 2. Close to death and HAD an NDE, 3, Controls who were not close to death and had no NDE.
Results - Groups 1 and 2 both changed, having increased life appreciation and religiosity (non-sectarian) and decreased materialism and fear of death.
Conclusion - It was the brush with death and NOT the NDE that was responsible for these changes.
Smugness and Distance - In a significant proportion of cases, families report NDEers, rather than becoming more caring and close, becoming smug, distant, and preoccupied with their own experiences.
The "Negative NDE," Ring Describes 3 Types:
1. Being in a "Hellish" place - And perhaps meeting the devil.
2. Floating aimlessly - In a void.
3. The "Inverted NDE" - As Ring calls it, is LESS COMMON than the other two types. Perceptually the same as the positive NDE but the person is terribly frightened at the impending "end of existence."
Other Correlates of NDE:
1. Children and NDE - If the content of the NDE experience reflects "social learning," then" the NDEs of children (who have had less social exposure) should not contain the typical phenomena. Irwin found, however, that children DID, in fact report similar phenomena. Irwin feels this SUPPORTS the validity of the NDE experience.
2. Personality - NDEers are no different on the major measures including IQ, neuroticism, extraversion, trait anxiety, and other psychopathology. They are higher in "PSYCHOLOGICAL ABSORBSION" which seems to be a common paranormal correlate.
3. History of Childhood Abuse - And fantasy proneness are common in the backgrounds of NDEers (Ring).
Theories of NDE:
I. The Separationist View -That the soul literally separates from the body is a popular belief and would support the survival hypothesis IF it could be proven.
II. Neuropsychological Theories (5):
1. Temporal Lobe Paroxysm - This lobe is involved in visual imagery and body image. Seizure like activity is suggested but the effect would not be consistent with the typical NDE experiences.
2. Cerebral Anoxia - Can produce hallucination BUT the types recorded are not typical of the NDE phenomena.
3. Neuropeptide and Neurotransmitter Release - Release of endorphins and other opiate like chemicals have been suggested. However, Sabom points out that the effects of these last MUCH LONGER than the seconds to minutes of the NDE and NOT BEING HALLUCINOGENS, they can't account for the typical NDE perceptual experiences.
4. Drugs (surgical anasthetics and otherwise) - Are not good candidates because so many NDEs do NOT occur in the operating room or under drug influence.
5. Massive Cortical Disinhibition - The activity of a "DYING BRAIN." The "tunnel" effect gets attributed to such activity in the optic tract. Irwin says NO! If this theory is correct, there should be much more consistency of perceptions across NDEers than we see.
III. Psychological Theories (3):
1. Depersonalization Theory- NDE as a "psychological defense" against the threat of death. BUT, many NDEs occur before the person has perceived any threat of death.
2. Motivated Fantasy - A milder "psychoanalytic" variation on the above. The denial of death is motivated by "NARCISSISM" i.e., how could "I" be dying?
3. Archetype Theory - (a la Jung) Posits that the NDE imagery is "pre-wired" into the brains of all members of our species. Evidence for "archetypes," NDE related or otherwise, is lacking.
Irwin's Final Word - None of the neuropsychological or psychological theories provide a satisfactory explanation. Based on this, Sabom argues that the NDE must be literally what it appears to be: "the soul's excursion into paridisal environs" (heavenly places).
Irwin Chapter 12 Out of Body Experiences
Independence from NDE - Despite overlap, the study of the two has proceeded independently because:
1.The involved professionals and sites differ (MDs in hospitals for NDE and Parapsychologists in the field or lab for OBE).
2. Differences in defining the phenomena - NDE is defined by the context or circumstances surrounding it, whereas OBE is defined by its phenomenology (what it means to the experient).
Palmer's Research - Induces OBE in the lab using "three elements:"
1. Body relaxation - to induce a meditative state.
2. Sensory deprivation OR bombardment - to promote dissociation.
3. Expectancy (mental set) - Experient is encouraged to want and believe in the OBE.
Irwin's Reaction to Palmer's Method - The outcomes are "insipid" compared with reports of spontaneous OBE events.
Astral Flights - To far off lands or planets occur among the "experienced and adept" OBEers as with Helene Smith's journey to Mars.
Autoscopy- Is a psychotic condition in which the person hallucinates meeting his own double ("doppelganger"). Usually the double is a reversed "mirror image" as we are used to seeing it. This would be consistent with psychosis. However, OBEers do NOT see a mirror image, they say "Oh, so that's how I look to others." This would seem to support the genuineness of the experience.
Sensory Aspects - Over 90% of OBEs are mostly visual, sometimes exclusively so.
Asensory OBEs -Involve a sense of externalization without any sensory impressions. Very rare, only 1% of Irwin's cases were asensory.
Astral Body and Astral Cord - Some report the externalized self to have a definite form (astral body OR "Parasomatic form"). In some cases, the form is linked to the physical body by the "astral cord" OR "Silver Cord" for those of a more spiritualistic orientation.
Pre-ExperienceMentalState-Irwin had 26 OBEers rate their pre-experience level of "mental arousal." Either low or high arousal (but not moderate) was associated with OBE occurrence but moderate arousal was NOT. N of 26 is just too small for this to have any validity (Richman).
Pre-ExperiencePhysicalState- According to Green (1968a) 90% of OBEs occur when the person is physically inactive (e.g., lying down). So, it is important that the person be out of touch with "bodily processes," (i.e., internal kinesthetic or proprioceptive stimuli).
The Experient:
Incidence - Irwin reported 20 - 48 percent of undergraduates as having OBEs. He posits possible correlates BUT this sample is "seriously Non-Random."
Personality of OBEers:
1. They are unrestrained, imaginative, radical, and "bohemian" (Gackenbush).
2.They have a "taste" for complexity" (Myers).
3. They are similar to controls on neuroticism or extraversion (Irwin).
Cogintive Factors:
1. Cook and Irwin - reported OBEers to be good at judging how objects would look from different perspectives (e.g., as in spatial rotation tasks).
2. High absorbtion, dissociative tendencies, and fantasy proneness (Irwin and others).
3. OBE correlates with pathological dissociation (Alvarado & Zisgrove).
THEORIES OF OBE
I. Ecsomatic Theories of OBE:
1. Crookal's Superphysical Soul Body Theory - We all have this "body" and it can separate from the physical body and pass through paradise, Hades, etc.
2.Yram's Memory and Imagination Theory - The out of body realm is constructed from memory and imagination but is nevertheless "real." A "problem" for this theory is: How do some OBEers gain access to sensorially unavailable information if the realm is of their own memory and imagination?
Osis's (1974) Test of Ecsomatic Theory - Required subjects to "exteriorize" to a distant location and identify a stimulus in a box. To rule out the use of ESP, a complex mechanism was used to produce the stimulus so that it could only be correctly identified from the one specified viewing angle. Osis had a few success and claimed support for Ecsomatic Theory.
Irwin's Reaction to OSIS - He was Not Impressed and said the only thing this showed was "Just how difficult testing Ecsomatic Theory is!"
II. Other (Imaginal) Theories:
1. Barbara Honegger's Physiological Theory - Under extreme conditions such as sensory deprivation / overload or trauma, we lose our biological sense of self. We seek return to "biological homeostasis" and integrity of the self by mentally constructing a sense of "self" independent of the physical body.
2. Schizotypy Theory - An old idea is that OBEers are simply schizophrenic, however, the data does not support this. OBE may be associated with the milder schizophrenic like trait of "Schizotypy" (magical thinking, unusual beliefs, etc.)
3. Jan Ehrenwald's "Quest for Immortality Theory" - The OBE is a delusionary attempt to assure ourselves that there is a "soul" and therefore life after death. Irwin rejects the idea because 1. OBE does NOT correlate with religiousity and 2. concern with an afterlife has no influence in OBE induction experiments.
4. Tyrrell's OBE as ESP Theory - Old names for OBE are "Traveling ESP" and "ESP Projection." The idea is that the OBE is made up of sensations from a remote location. The "fantasy" of travel provides the experient with a needed sense of orientation to the remote location.
5. Blackmore's Cognitive Theory - At any given time, many mental interpretations of reality are available and we normally choose that most compatible with current sensory input. Under unusual circumstances (e.g., stress) an interpretation of realitybased on memory or imagination may get selected instead.
6. Irwin's Synesthetic Theory - High or low cortical arousal in a person predisposed to dissociation must be present. If, at the same time, somatic (kinesthetic, proprioceptive) dissociation also occurs, the OBE may occur.
Irwin's Final Word on OBE - His theory appears to be psychological. He feels that the evidence for ecsomatic theories of the OBE in general are NOT strong. Even if there were a separation of a nonphysical aspect of the self, it still would not prove the survival hypothesis.
Irwin Chapter 13 Apparitional Experiences
Apparition - Irwin's definition: "is encountered in a perceptual-like experience and relates to a person or animal not physically present with physical means of communication ruled out."
Referent Person - The person represented by the "apparition."
The Phenomenological Approach - According to Osis, research needs to be moving from the "older" question of whether the apparition is "real" or a hallucination to a more "phenomenological" approach (what it means to the experient).
Psychomantium - The research arrangement in which the subject is seated in front of a mirror which reflects the wall behind and above him or her. Moody reports a 70% success rate with this method. Irwin correctly notes that "the demand characteristics of this experimental procedure clearly are very high.