Internationalisation in Higher Education: Unexplored Possibilities and Unavoidable Challenges
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-14 September 2002.
Internationalisation in Higher Education:
Unexplored Possibilities and Unavoidable Challenges
He is not a reasonable man who by chance stumbles upon
reason; but he who derives it from knowledge, from
discernment, and from taste. (La Rochefoucauld)
1.Introduction
On my way home from a trip as an “international educator” the following unfolded. On the aeroplane I sat next to a man in his sixties. As boredom struck us we became involved in a conversation. Taking turns, we told each other about ourselves. For thirty-five years my new friend has been working as a technician with the world as his professional turf. With a big portion of enthusiasm he told me many interesting anecdotes. When I told him that I worked with “internationalisation issues” he rightly asked for an explanation. At length I explained what I meant by internationalisation. Afterwards he said: “..but, isn’t my job an example of internationalisation?” I agreed. He thought for a while and then said: “Strange. I never thought of it as “internationalisation”. I just saw it as a job”. His reaction made me think of the vagueness of the term internationalisation and how we, in higher education, advertise it as an invention of late modern society.
Frequently, discussions on internationalisation in higher education focus predominantly on student and faculty mobility whereas other aspects largely are left aside. By drawing upon the discourse on globalization, intercultural training and internationalisation, the focus of this paper is internationalisation in higher education. The aim is to single out and discuss a number of significant aspects of internationalisation in higher education. Special attention will be given to the underlying ideas and visions of internationalisation, pedagogic considerations,obstacles, gains and possibilities of international co-operation on students and staff and strategies to ensure internationalisation a place in the curriculum. Particularly, light is shed upon the “content-side” of international education. A possible path from the abstract goals of internationalisation to concrete implementation in higher education is, therefore, outlined. It is assumed that universities have much to gain by co-operating internationally. In spite of its ambitious scope, this text should primarily be seen as a start of a more elaborate project in the area.
2. A Conceptual Clarification
Before starting, a conceptual clarification seems feasible. Nowadays the concept of internationalisation is popular and frequently used, in varying context and for diverse purposes. Yet it remains ambiguous and unclear (Knight 1997; Yang 2002; Stier 2002b). The English writer J. Bentham was first to use the term “international” around 1780. Etymologically it can be derived from Latin; “inter” means “between” and “nationalisation” refers to “nation”. Hence, the concept of internationalisation applies to, on the one hand, a process of “making something international”. It is a process of exchange and mutual influence, where the actors involved are presumably “nations”. On the other hand, internationalisation is commonly conceptualised as an ideology or policy of some sort.
When we speak of the contents of internationalisation in higher education the term “intercultural education” seems more fruitful. Intercultural education implies a learning situation characterised by interculturalinteraction, which is used actively as a pedagogic resource. Since “cultures” or “ethnicities” rather than “nations” are the centre of attention in this text, the term internationalisation, therefore, will be substituted for intercultural education when it seems more adequate.
3. Internationalisation: Yesterday and Today
Internationalisation is habitually seen as something unique for the last two centuries. But ever since time immemorial, people have interacted with other cultures, out of curiosity, necessity or by sheer coincidence. Explorers such as James Cook, Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus, travelled the world in their thirst for knowledge and impulses. Famous Swedish scientists Carl von Linné and Emanuel Swedenborg worked in different parts of the world. Academics and students travelled abroad to the universities in Bologna, Göttingen, Paris, Greifsvald, Oxford, to mention just a few, to take advantage of the intellectual elite of those days (Sjöstrand 1970; Egidius 2001). Thus, interest in the world, other people, cultures, languages and ideas or simply the quest for knowledge and competence have always been motives for academic training abroad.
A major difference is, however, that nowadays we live in a globalised world. People, capital, ideologies, media images and cultural impulses travel around the world more rapidly and efficiently than ever before (Appudurai 1996; Giddens 1996; Bauman 2000; Beck 1997). International experiences are constantly available for many of us in our own neighbourhoods. The Internet connects people of different backgrounds across large distances. But the unique thing is that the Internet is totally indifferent to international boundaries (Graham 1999:86). It links together people who otherwise would be strangers to one another, by a common interest that has nothing to do with nationality.” (ibid). “Virtual reality” has become a significant factor in many people’s identity construction
Against this background, “territorial” identities have presumably been substituted for “mobile” identities. Overall, in the late modern world identities are more fragile, dispersed or dislocated and have urged the construction of new identities (Friedman 1994; Castells 1997).
Responding to the needs of global man, higher education policies have become increasingly internationalised (Kälvemark, Löfkvist & Waerness 1999). A clear tendency toward an ideologisation of internationalisation policies is also visible. Policy-makers and educators, frequently and energetically, stress internationalisation as a principal goal for higher education. Internationalisation-ideologies can be seen as integral elements of an “identity-project” to replace territorial, communal and national identities with mobile, cosmopolitan and “international” identities. For single individuals, it may be simultaneously an answer to their personal quest for an identity.
Furthermore, internationalisation is no longer, however, a concern exclusively for universities, colleges or research institutes. For a variety of reasons, multinational organisations, companies or political bodies also define their internationalisation-policies.
Consequently, there is a viable discourse on internationalisation. Policy-makers tend to focus on ideological goals (e.g. the overall course of higher education), university administrators on formalities and practicalities of international co-operation (e.g. student visas, health insurance, grading systems, course-equivalencies etc) whereas teachers emphasise pedagogic issues (e.g. course contents, pedagogic issues, language problems etc). In addition to this, universities struggle to overcome organisational obstacles, traditions and collective attitudes that prevent administrators and teaching staff from co-operating sufficiently and adequately.
4. Ideals and Visions
Limited access to higher education sustains social inequality in the world. Therefore, the internationalisation of higher education can contribute to a more democratic, fair and equal world. It increases the awareness of the varying life-conditions, social injustices and racial segregation that people live under. Over time this may initiate a redistribution of resources and welfare. The UNESCO-conference stresses the important role of higher education to accomplish this:
Without adequate higher education and research institutions providing a critical mass of skilled and educated people, no country can ensure genuine endogenous and sustainable development and, in particular, developing countries and least developed countries cannot reduce the gap separating them from the industrially developed ones. Sharing knowledge, international co-operation and new technologies can offer new opportunities to reduce this gap (UNESCO, World Declaration on Higher Education).
The rationale of international cooperation in academia seems grounded in a common-sense assumption that “internationalisation is good per se. International co-operation grants presumably students and staff from the “poor world” access to new knowledge and competence. But it should also, to the students, communicate and create understanding for the relativity of cultural beliefs, values, living patterns, ideologies and ideas. It should, among them, inoculate tolerance, respect and contribute to a sense of global as well as national community and solidarity and work against ethnocentrism, racism and academic self-righteousness.[1] The aim should be to evoke students’ curiosity and stimulate their appreciation of intercultural differences and ethnic diversity.
At the same time, higher education has become a global commodity and countries market themselves as research and education nations. Critics claim that the wealthy nations, through international exchange programmes try to attract researchers, teaching staff and fee-paying students from the “poor world” in order to keep their competence in the country, thus risking to “brain drain” their home countries.
Critics claim also that internationalisation is guided by the “rich world’s” economic and political interests, standards, value systems, ethnocentrism and belief in self-superiority. Hence, internationalisation is predominantly seen as a one-way flow – “they” can learn from us, but “we” have little to learn from them. In its most extreme guise, they mean that internationalisation is an instrument to “educate uncivilised people” or simply a strategy to maximise profit and ensure economic growth.
For the European Union the implementation of international co-operation is part of a large-scale identity project (Stier 1998). Internationalisation-policies are considered potent means to strengthen a sense of community and association among the Union’s members. To simplify student mobility actions have been taken to increase transparency, equivalence and recognition (Kälvemark, Löfkvist & Waerness 1999). Similarly, many countries initiate international programmes for their citizens. Sweden and the European Union have allocated vast resources to increase the level of student exchanges and international research co-operation. As an example, about 30.000 Swedish students study abroad annually (National Agency for Higher Education).
5. Competencies for a Global World
In higher education in Western Europe, study-programmes with broad foci have been prioritised, whereas other programmes have been prolonged. Real competencies and qualifications with broad areas of application are emphasised (Beck 1997: 178). The value of life-long learning, inclusive education, social competencies, critical thinking, the ability to cope with conflicts and, last, but not least, intercultural understanding are stressed. The Swedish National Agency for Higher Education writes in a report (1998:25):
..an increasing number of Swedish enterprises will be active in arenas outside the EU and the export industry
will face great and new challenges in foreign markets. To be prepared for the 21st century, the private sector
will need skilled and well-educated labour [my translation].
Intercultural education is assumed to match demands of the global and multicultural world. It may be a way to enhance the labour force’s professional and intercultural competencies (Stier 2002a/b), but also to better take advantage of the inherent potential of domestic ethnic diversity. Many employers stress and vaule the need for professionals with competencies in several languages and knowledge of diverse cultural codes. Motives may be to maximise profit, expand into new markets or increase efficiency. For this reason, international experiences constitute a comparative advantage for students as they later seek employment.
6. Internationalisation and Domestic Ethnic Diversity
Traditionally, ideologies and policies on domestic ethnic and cultural pluralism have been separated from those on internationalisation. Questions of internationalisation and domestic ethnic diversity are, however, two sides of the same coin. It would, therefore, be more fruitful and productive to work with these matters in an integrated fashion. Domestic “immigrant” students have much to contribute with in discussions on international or intercultural issues as well as to any other issues for that matter. By integrating them in international courses and programs higher education is not only international but rather intercultural in its scope, ambitions and theoretical analyses. Moreover, this ensures intercultural education for students who, for different reasons, cannot study abroad.
Whereas internationalisation-policies typically emphasise the beneficial opportunity of studying abroad, policies on ethnic diversity merely talk of equal opportunity. Whereas internationalisation is said to enrich higher education, programs on ethnic diversity merely want to make them available or easier. And, whereas internationalisation-policies stress the acquisition of new competencies, ethnic diversity policies aim at taking advantage of already existing competencies among its citizens. By making use of domestic ethnic diversity, intercultural experiences are available for students who cannot go abroad.
7. Intercultural Education as a Journey
Intercultural education may be the answer to the competence needs of the future. Intercultural education – at home or abroad – can be viewed as a journey. More specifically, it is four parallel but closely interconnected journeys (Stier 2002a). It is an academic journey where the student is exposed and must adapt to a different academic setting, with its own unique culture, teaching style, interaction patterns, social norms, grading system etc. By being abroad the features and oddities of the home institution tend to crystallise. Similarly, students may become aware of the cultural bias in higher education. They can, for instance, be given assignments where they are asked to scrutinise syllabi and contents of lectures and literature to see how they are culturally biased. Rightfully students in my class pointed to the paradox that a course on global studies contained 90% readings from the USA, United Kingdom and Canada.
Intercultural education also constitutes a cultural journey where students are confronted with a new, perhaps unknown, national culture – with its unique features, language and so on. Again, this process brings about cross-cultural comparisons, where the host culture’s unique features are in focus, but also illuminates the home culture’s peculiarities.
It is an intellectual journey where the students hopefully become aware of their frame of reference and critically reflect over their attitudes, prejudices, stereotypes and ethnocentrism. They should be urged to challenge their taken-for-granted conceptions and be assisted, not merely in detectingcultural differences and similarities but in understanding and respecting them. Moreover, intercultural education should stimulate students to move beyond instrumental learning. Instead they should be encouraged to reflect over the process of learning. – and adopt “ an outsider’s perspective”.
Finally, it constitutes an emotional journey since it is likely to bring about a vast array of emotional responses. Being a stranger, newcomer, alien or simply finding oneself in an unfamiliar or intercultural setting may trigger feelings of uncertainty, uneasiness, frustration, anxiety or chauvinism (Stier 2002a). International education can make them aware of emotional processes and, in turn, help them to develop fruitful coping strategies for the future.
For the individual, intercultural education may contribute to personal growth and self-actualisation as well as to his or her life quality and sense of identity. A report from the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education indicates that studies abroad give students a sense of greater independence, self-esteem and a growing interest in other cultures (1999:28).
8. Obstacles and Possibilities
Based on my experiences, intercultural student groups pose certain pedagogic challenges. Typically international students demand fingerspitzengefühl, as well as more effort and commitment. Teachers are likely to become more involved in the life-process of the students than in other students. They turn to you with grievances – not merely academic but also personal problems. Thus, to a higher extent the teacher role is entangled with the mentor and counsellor roles (Stier 2002b).
A particular challenge for the staff is teaching in foreign language. For some this is an unbridgeable gulf, whereas it only demands a short period of adjustment for others. Nonetheless, to many of us it may be constraining, when it comes to exemplifying or explaining something. To facilitate intercultural education, language training at a variety of competence levels should be available to students and staff.
In addition to qualitative gains, there must be other incentives (or at least no major obstacles) for teaching-staff, who take on intercultural classes. Large financial and personnel resources and time may have to be allocated – for the course as such but also for assessment, modifications of the pedagogic design, student interaction, workshops, guest-speakers etc.
More than other courses, in international courses the structure, expectations on students, grading system must be transparent. As an expression of professionalism or to avoid problems or misunderstandings, some teachers inform students about everything that they are likely to experience in the new setting. But providing too much apriori knowledge may devalue the students’ experiences.
Courses that, at first sight, seem to lack an intercultural dimension most often embody intercultural components. An innovative teacher can discover such dimensions in almost any course. For example, by discussing “science” as a cultural construction students may see the relativity of the most fundamental “principles” of science, e.g. logic, induction, deduction, production of knowledge and disciplinary boundaries. Or by directing attention to controversial themes (e.g. abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia), values, norms, habits, customs traditions etc, international education can bring attention to cultural peculiarities and similarities.
Staff-student and student-student interaction and by approaching topics from different angles, ideological and theoretical perspectives may produce synergy effects. To optimise the learning experience the teacher must serve as a facilitator, guiding the processes of self-reflection. International guest speakers may also have positive effects on the overall quality of the class - simply because he or she has an area of interest or teaching style that differs from the regular teacher’s. Important is, however, that students are able to connect the guest speaker’s contribution to the course contents. All too often guest speakers are used as sort of an “international choreography” to meet the requirements of students and syllabi.
Furthermore, educators must be brave enough to allow a certain level of frustration as well as skilled enough to assist students in coping with uncertainty and vagueness, since a classroom atmosphere characterised by constructive frustration facilitates learning. “Trial and error”- or rather “learning by struggling” seems to be useful method. The same goes for the teacher; any problem houses pedagogic possibilities. Identifying and taking advantage of it is, however, the challenge.