Motivation
Definitions:
The following definitions of Motivation were drawn from textbooks. They reflect the consensus that motivation is an internal state (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that activates behavior and thoughts and gives them direction.
–internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;
–desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;
–influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior;
–the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior;
–physiological and psychological factors that account for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior (Davis and Palladino).
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author ProfessorBillHuitt’s website.
Motivation and Emotion
•Emotion, a subjective sensation experienced as a type of psycho-physiological arousal, is different from motivation in that it has no goal connected with it.
•Emotions occur as a result of the interaction of the (a) perception of environmental stimuli, (b) neural/ hormonal responses to these perceptions (feelings), and (c) cognitive labeling of these feelings (Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981b).
•There is a small core of emotions (6 to 8) that are uniquely associated with a specific facial expression (Izard, 1990). This suggests these are hard-wired in humans.
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author ProfessorBillHuitt’s website.
Sources of Motivation
•Explanations regarding the sources of motivation can be categorized as extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (inside the person). Intrinsic sources/theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective), or transpersonal/ spiritual.
•Needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action. Action may be initiated by positive and/or negative incentives.
•It appears likely that initiation of behavior may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or goal-orientation
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author ProfessorBillHuitt’s website.
Sources of Motivation
Behavioral
•wanting or needing to obtain desirable consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesirable consequences—anticipated or actual;
•wanting or needing something as elicited by classical conditioning (bio-behavioral).
Biological
•wanting or needing an increase or decrease in stimulation or arousal in order to resolve boredom (under-stimulation) or stress (psycho-physiologically over-stimulation);
•wanting or needing to decrease hunger, thirst, pain, terror, sex drive, etc., which also involves decreasing aversive internal physical stimulation;
•wanting or needing to sleep, rest, or wake up;
•wanting or needing to have physical control of one’s body;
•wanting or needing to act on anger against others (bio- emotional-social);
•wanting or needing to act on psych-physiological feeling of love for someone, oneself, or other things such as animals, nature, and religious belief (bio- social);
•wanting or needing to feel safe and secure (bio-social).
Sources of Motivation
Cognitive
•wanting or needing to attend to something interesting, challenging, promising, or threatening;
•wanting or needing to acquire knowledge or understanding;
•wanting or needing to decrease cognitive dissonance, inconsistency, uncertainty, etc.;
•wanting or needing to solve a problem or eliminate a threat or risk;
•wanting or needing to eliminate inconsistency between one’s bad actions and one’s need for self-esteem—mind games or distorting the facts in one’s own favor;
•wanting or needing to be optimistic or hopeful;
•wanting or needing to perceive sensory input as a form of cognitive control;
•wanting or needing self-respect or positive self-concept;
•wanting or needing to grow and to achieve specific goals;
•wanting or needing to create something good or beautiful;
•wanting or needing to be in control of one’s life;
•wanting or needing to believe in a supreme being or creator who values humans enough to give them immortality;
•wanting or needing to feel competent;
•wanting or needing to attribute cause to events.
Sources of Motivation
Affective
•wanting or needing to increase specific good feelings and moods;
•wanting or needing to decrease specific bad feelings and moods;
•wanting or needing to act on feelings of empathy (bio-social-emotional).
Social
•wanting or needing to imitate models with status who are able to obtain rewards;
•wanting or needing to be valued and admired by significant others (cognitive-behavioral);
•wanting or needing to help and support others in need when one is virtuous and not reacting to fear;
•wanting or needing to punish those one believes have wronged them or wronged someone they love or care about (bio-social);
•wanting or needing to help others in spite of threats to self and related fear—courage (social-affective);
•wanting or needing someone or many others to care about (social-affective).
Theories of motivation
1. Behavioral
•Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral psychology posits a primary factor in motivation.
•Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
•Operant conditioning says the primary factor is consequences: the application of “reinforcers” provides incentives to increase behavior; the application of “punishers” provides disincentives that decrease behavior.
2. Biological
• Human Instincts, if they exist, are involuntary,
unlearned, and triggered by environmental
events called releasing stimuli.
• Drive Reduction Theory views motivation as
reducing physiological imbalances. A drive is an
internal motivational state that is increased by a
physical need.
• Optimum Arousal-Level Theory proposes that
we seek an optimum level or arousal and that
our level at any given time can be too high or
two low. Any form of stimulation or cognitive
activity affects arousal.
3. Cognitive
•Cognitive Dissonance theory is similar to disequilibrium in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. This theory states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies.
•A second approach is Attribution Theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). Every individual tries to explain success or failure through "attributions," which are either internal (ability, effort) or external (luck, ) and either under one’s control or out of one’s control.
•A third cognitive approach is Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964). It proposes that Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) times Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) times Value of Obtaining Goal (Value). Since the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Value are multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value in motivation. If an individual doesn't believe he can be successful OR does not see a connection between his activity and success OR does not value the results of success, then motivation is absent.
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author ProfessorBillHuitt’s website.
Maslow’s Needs in Detail
Extracxted from
Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think about other things.
Safety Needs
Safety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., an abusive husband, the wife cannot move to the next level because she is constantly concerned for her safety. Love and belongingness have to wait until she is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our society cry out for law and order because they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood. Many people, particularly those in the inner cities, unfortunately, are stuck at this level. In addition, safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.
Love Needs
Love and belongingness are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others. Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. Beer commercials, in addition to playing on sex, also often show how beer makes for camaraderie. When was the last time you saw a beer commercial with someone drinking beer alone?
Esteem Needs
There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence or mastery of a task. Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the belongingness level, however, wanting admiration has to do with the need for power. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied, often drive very expensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. "Hey, look what I can afford- peon!"
Self-Actualization
The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace, esthetic experiences, self- fulfillment, oneness with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who take up environmental causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a monastery, etc.
6. Social Learning
• Social learning theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators.
7. Social Cognition
• Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination. In this view, the environment, an individual's behavior, and the individual's characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions, cognitive development) influence and are influenced by each other.
• AlbertBandura highlights self-efficacy (the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it) and self-regulation (the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and modification or redirection.
8. Eclectic
Leonard et al. proposed 5 factors as the sources: (1) Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers), (2) Intrinsic Process Motivation (enjoyment, fun), (3) Goal Internalization (self-determined values and goals), (4) Internal Self Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior with internally-developed ideal self), (5) External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior with externally-developed ideal self). Individuals are influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that can change in specific situations.
Factors one and five are external. Individuals who are instrumentally motivated are influenced by immediate actions in the environment (e.g. operant conditioning); individuals who are self-concept motivated are influenced by their constructions of external demands and ideals (e.g., social cognition).
Factors two, three, and four are internal. Intrinsic means the specific task is interesting and provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization orientation is task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social cognition theory) whereas the person with an internal self-concept orientation is influenced by individual constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic theory).
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author ProfessorBillHuitt’s website.