In what ways was Soviet social and cultural life transformed under Stalin in the 1930s?
Social and cultural life in the Soviet Union were dramatically changed during the 1930s, under the rule of Joseph Stalin. The most important aspects of that transformation were the propagation of the ‘cult of Stalin’, the implementation of the Terror, and changes to the role of women and the family, literature and the arts, education, religion and the nationalities.
The most visible change in Soviet social and cultural life in the 1930s was undoubtedly the ‘cult of Stalin’, which began in 1929. Using the party’s control over the media, the Stalin was presented as the ‘Supreme Genius of Humanity’ – the true successor to Lenin. His face now began to appear everywhere – in photographs and paintings, on the sides of houses and buildings. Cities and towns were named in his honour. Children were taught to give thanks to him for their happy lives.
Stalin also arranged for history to be rewritten, to emphasise his own role the Revolution and the Civil War. According to this new version, it was he who organised the Bolshevik takeover in 1917 and who devised the strategy to defeat the White armies. It came to define what new party members knew about Russian history.
No change in the 1930s had a greater impact on Soviet society than the Terror. Managers, doctors, scientists, artists, workers – all were subjected to the dead hand of Stalin’s secret police. In human terms, the cost was staggering. Robert Conquest estimates the number killed to have been 18 million between 1930 and ‘39 – with 8 million dying in 1937-38 alone.
Stalin’s aim was to intimidate the population into total submission, and in this he was very successful. Fear permeated every level of society, and trust all but disappeared. People were left with little choice but to accept Stalin’s claims that a giant conspiracy was taking place against himself and the Revolution – particularly since so many senior Communists were confessing to this. As such, many people did not blame Stalin for the Terror. In fact, most supported him, and believed that the ‘traitors’, ‘spies’ and ‘saboteurs’ deserved to die.
When the Bolsheviks came to power, they had grand ideas for the liberation of women – abolishing the traditional family structure and granting women complete equality with men. While the reality fell short of these high ideals, many significant reforms were introduced in the 1920s. These included equal pay for equal work, the right to education and divorce, legal recognition of common law marriages, the payment of child maintenance, the provision of maternity benefits and child care facilities, and the right to abortion on demand. Women also began entering the workforce in huge numbers.
However, in the 1930s some of these reforms were reversed, as Stalin imposed a new conservatism upon society. In particular, divorce laws were tightened and abortion was banned. Although women were still encouraged to work, they were now expected to devote themselves primarily to the family. As a result, married women often found themselves with two jobs – one in the workforce and one at home (housework).
During the 1920s, literature and the arts had flourished in Russia. The Bolsheviks had tolerated artistic expression, as long as it was not overtly anti-socialist.
However, this changed drastically under Stalin. All writers, painters and film-makers were expected to devote their talents to the promotion of the socialist ideal. This new style was known as ‘Socialist Realism’, and it left no place for individual expression. As J.N. Westwood has written, “The new literary hero was the peasant who, by intelligent use of manure, doubled the potato crop despite the machinations of the local priest.” (Westwood: 371) Those who refused to comply were either banned from working or were purged.
Education was another area which experienced considerable change following the Revolution. All church schools were nationalised in 1918, and were made to conform to the new standardised education system. This involved considerable innovation – particularly the introduction of less formal learning and the abolition of exams. The government also embarked on a universal literacy program, using the Red Army and ‘workers’ faculties’ as a means of educating illiterate peasants and workers. By 1939, literacy had reached 94 percent in the towns and 86 percent in the villages.
During the 1920s, the government also insisted that two thirds of university places be reserved for the children of the working class. This meant that large numbers of people were able to get access to better jobs, and thereby move up the social scale.
However, during the 1930s, many of the features of the old Tsarist education system returned – in particular, strict discipline and assessment by examinations. The two thirds quota for university admission was also dropped (in 1932), meaning that the children of white collar workers had better opportunities. Nevertheless, this did raise educational standards.
Finally, the education system suffered from ‘Stalinisation’ – the introduction of textbooks which presented Stalin as a genius.
Following the November Revolution, Lenin had introduced a policy of religious tolerance. However, he accompanied this with a propaganda campaign to rid people of ‘harmful superstitions’. With the outbreak of the civil war, church opposition to the Bolsheviks intensified, and the government reacted by placing church property under state control (which it largely was anyway).
Under Stalin, there was an intensification of the campaign to eradicate religious belief. An increasing number of churches were closed, destroyed or converted into museums. The Godless League, which was responsible for this campaign, organised activities to demonstrate the non-existence of god (such as flying people above the clouds to show there was no god there). At its peak in 1932, the League had five million members.
Even so, religious practice was still tolerated, and an uneasy coexistence was reached between church and state.
When the Bolsheviks came to power, they had tried to give independence to the various republics which made up the empire. Even when it became clear that this would not be possible, they still tolerated national and cultural diversity.
However, for Stalin such tolerance was out of the question. In 1936, he introduced a policy if ‘russification’, to force the various nationalities to learn the Russian language and adopt Russian customs. This was part of his general strategy of centralising power in his own hands.
Hence, it can be seen that the Soviet dictator’s policies had an impact on virtually all aspects of life in the 1930s. Russian society and culture had become well and truly ‘Stalinised’.