Animals of South Asia
In Hinduism, the cow (Sanskrit: go) is revered as the source of food and symbol of life and may never be killed. Hindus do not worship the cow, however, and cows do not have especially charmed lives in India. It is more accurate to say the cow is taboo in Hinduism, rather than sacred.
History of the "Sacred" Cow: In ancient India, oxen and bulls were sacrificed to the gods and their meat was eaten. But even then the slaughter of milk-producing cows was prohibited. Verses of the Rigveda refer to the cow as Devi (goddess), identified with Aditi (mother of the gods) herself.
Even when meat-eating was permitted, the ancient Vedic scriptures encouraged vegetarianism. One scripture says, "There is no sin in eating meat... but abstention brings great rewards." (The Laws of Manu, V/56)
Later, in the spiritually fertile period that produced Jainism and Buddhism, Hindus stopped eating beef. This was mostly like for practical reasons as well as spiritual. It was expensive to slaughter an animal for religious rituals or for a guest, and the cow provided an abundance of important products, including milk, browned butter for lamps, and fuel from dried dung.
Some scholars believe the tradition came to Hinduism through the influence of strictly vegetarian Jainism. But the cow continued to be especially revered and protected among the animals of India.
By the early centuries AD, the cow was designated as the appropriate gift to the brahmans (high-caste priests) and it was soon said that to kill a cow is equal to killing a brahman. The importance of the pastoral element in the Krishna stories, particularly from the 10th century onward, further reinforced the sanctity of the cow.
Cow-Related Practices: The cow remains a protected animal in Hinduism today and Hindus do not eat beef. Most rural Indian families have at least one dairy cow, a gentle spirit who is often treated as a member of the family.
The five products (pancagavya) of the cow — milk, curds, ghee butter, urine and dung — are all used in puja (worship) as well as in rites of extreme penance. The milk of the family cow nourishes children as they grow up, and cow dung (gobar) is a major source of energy for households throughout India. Cow dung is sometimes among the materials used for a tilak - a ritual mark on the forehead. Most Indians do not share the western revulsion at cow excrement, but instead consider it an earthy and useful natural product.
Despite their sacred status, cows don't seem very appreciated in India. Visitors are often surprised to see them walking neglected around city streets, living on garbage from the gutters. But the cow is honored at least once a year, on Gopastami. On this "Cow Holiday," cows are washed and decorated in the temple and given offerings in the hope that her gifts of life will continue.
Sources
- John Bowker, ed., Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions (2000).
- "sanctity of the cow." Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- The Complete Idiot's Guide to Hinduism, p. 60.
- "Why is the Cow 'Sacred?'" by "Jane (USA)" at Indiayogi.com
Cow in Pune, India. Photo: Ville Miettinen.
Wandering cow in Delhi. Photo: Roshnii Rose.
Dressed-up cow in Goa. Photo: Dey Alexander.
Processing cow dung (gobar), which will be put to many uses. Photo: Eli
ELEPHANT
The largest living land mammal, which during the Pleistocene period roamed every landmass except Australia and Antarctica. Two extant species, the Indian elephant, Elephas maximus, of India and Southeast Asia, and the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, ranging south of the Sahara, are now limited to tropical forests, savannas, and river valleys. The Indian elephant reaches heights of 3 m (10 ft), and the African elephant, 4 m (13 ft). Earlier proboscideans--the mammoths, with some reaching 4.5 m (15 ft).
African and Indian Elephants.
In addition to its greater size, L. africana can be quickly distinguished from E. maximus by its larger ears, which may reach a length of 1.5 m (about 5 ft) from top to bottom. The African elephant is tallest at the shoulder, has more wrinkled skin, and bears tusks in both male and female. The Indian elephant is tallest at the arch of the back, bears tusks in the male only, and has one lobe instead of two on its trunk.
Three Ts: Trunk, Tusks, & Teeth
The boneless, muscular trunk, the most distinctive feature of proboscideans, is actually a greatly elongated upper lip and nose used to convey grasses, leaves, and water to the mouth. Present-day elephants consume as much as 225 kg (495 lb) of forage a day in this manner and drink as much as 190 liters (50 gal) of water, drawing it through their nostrils and squirting it into the mouth. An extremely versatile organ, the trunk is also used to trumpet calls, pull down trees, rip off foliage, and draw up dust for dust bathing. It is also a highly sensitive organ, which the animals raise into the air to detect the faintest wind-borne scents. By means of fingerlike lobes on the end of the trunk and by the sucking action of the two nostrils, elephants can pick up and examine small objects.
The tusks, which are deeply embedded in the skull, are actually enormously enlarged incisors. Record tusks of the male African elephant have measured 3.5 m (10.5 ft) long. Elephants have only four molar or grinding teeth, one to each side of the upper and lower jaws; each is a massive plate about 30 cm (about 12 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) wide. When worn down by the coarse vegetation elephants eat, these teeth are replaced by larger ones that shift forward from the rear of the jaws. At about 40 years of age, the animal's final and largest molars come into position and last for about 20 years. Elephants have the same longevity as humans.
Walking Movements.
Despite their great weight, which in African elephants reaches 7000 kg (15,400 lb) and in Indian elephants reaches 5000 kg (11,000 lb), elephants walk almost noiselessly and with exceptional grace, their columnar legs keeping their bulk moving forward in smooth, rhythmic strides. A thick cushion of resilient tissue grows on the base of the foot, absorbing the shock of the weight and enabling the animal to walk high on its hooflike toes. Elephants normally walk about 6.4 km/hr (about 4 mph) and can charge at up to 40 km/hr (25 mph). They cannot gallop or jump over ditches, but they readily take to rivers and lakes where the water supports them and enables them to swim for long distances without tiring.
Sensory Perception & Social Structure
The elephant's hearing is poor, and the great ears of the African elephant are probably used as much for ventilation and making threatening gestures as for hearing. The eyesight is equally poor, the eyes being comparatively small and fixed on the animal's large and relatively immobile head. The most sensitive organ is the trunk, which is frequently at work, picking up scents of food and danger from the ground and the air. Observers first noted in the 1980s that elephants produce, with their nasal passages, rumbling sounds below the range of human hearing. Because such sounds travel well and because elephant hearing is better at low frequencies, the animals very likely use these sounds to communicate with one another.
Elephants are gregarious and keenly sensitive to one another's calls and movements. They associate in herds of 15 to 30 or more usually related members led by an old female. Herds of Indian elephants are usually made up of females, immature elephants, and one old bull; those of African elephants also include mature bulls. Bulls driven from herds live alone or in bachelor herds. Elephants commonly feed in the morning, evening, and at night, and rest during the middle of the day. When migrating, they often trek single file.
Citation (MLA)
Elephant. Discovery Education. 2005.
Discovery Education. 25 February 2009
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Threats & Conservation
Numbers of Asian elephants were decimated by habitat loss and hunting throughout their historical range. Vast tracts of land have been logged or simply cleared to accommodate the growing human population in the region (2). Elephant populations have become increasingly isolated in the fragmented habitat that remains, often coming into conflict with local farmers (6). Crops are damaged and lives lost; up to 300 people a year are killed by elephants in India(3), leading to retaliation on local elephants (7). Poaching for ivory is also a threat and because only males have tusks, populations can become extremely skewed towards females, thus affecting breeding rates (2).
The Asian elephant is protected from international trade by its listing on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), although illegal poaching remains a problem (3). Many elephants occur within protected reserves but these are often too small to accommodate them, leading to human-elephant conflict (3). The creation of wildlife corridors to extend reserve lands, together with the cessation of poaching are just some of the conservation steps needed to secure the future of the Asian elephant (7). The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) launched the Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS) in 1998 to address these issues, and this multifaceted conservation programme is also working with local people to reduce conflict with these magnificent animals (7).
Taming
The first elephant species to be tamed was the Asian Elephant; its first use was agricultural. Elephant taming (not full domestication, as they were still captured in the wild) may have begun in any of three different places. The oldest evidence of tamed elephants is in a Mesopotamian relief, around 4,500 years ago[citation needed]. Another possibility is the Indus Valley Civilization, also from approximately that date. Archaeological evidence for the presence of wild elephants in the Yellow River valley during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1100 BC) has also led to China's being suggested as a possibility.[2] However, the elephant populations of Mesopotamia and China declined dramatically rather early because of deforestation and human overpopulation: by c.850BC the Mesopotamian elephants were extinct, and by c.500BC the Chinese elephants were seriously reduced in numbers and limited to areas well south of the Yellow River.
Because of the uncertainty about where elephants were first used, there is uncertainty as to where elephant warfare began. The earliest known military application of elephants dates from around 1100BC in VedicIndia, which is mentioned in several Vedic hymns from this era.
From India, military doctrines for using war elephants spread to the Persian Empire, where they were used in several campaigns.
Tigers (Panthera tigris)
Description
One of the largest of the 'big cats', the tiger is an instantly recognisable and emotive animal. Nine different subspecies are recognised, three of which became extinct in the latter part of the 20th Century; the Bali (P. t. balica), Javan (P. t. sondaica) and Caspian tigers (P. t. virgata). The remaining subspecies are the Siberian (P. t. altaica), South China (P. t. amoyensis), Sumatran (P. t. sumatrae), Indochinese (P. t. corbetti), Malayan (P. t. jacksoni)and Bengal tigers (P. t. tigris) (3)(10). The different subspecies vary in their body size, coat colour and markings, with the Sumatran tiger being the smallest and darkest, whilst the Siberian tiger is the largest and palest subspecies(4). Markings and coat colour can overlap between subspecies and are not often used to differentiate (10). Generally however, tigers have a reddish-orange to yellow-ochre coat with a white belly and black markings, the pattern of which is unique (2). Like the other big cats, tigers are well adapted for hunting large prey and have short, heavily-muscled forelimbs and long, sharp, retractable claws (2). Extreme colour varieties are occasionally seen in the wild, such as whitish-grey tigers with chocolate stripes which are the result of two tigers with a recessive gene breeding (2). However, whilst this colour variation is popular with zoos, it is not of conservation significance (2).
Range
Tigers were once known throughout central and southern Asia and as far west as eastern Turkey but currently survive only in scattered populations from India to Southeast Asia, and in Sumatra, China and the Russian Far East (3).
Habitat
Varies widely across its range from tropical forests to tall grass jungles, encompassing coniferous woodlands, mangrove swamps and dry thorn forests. In general however, tigers require dense cover, access to water and sufficient large prey (3).
Biology
Tigers are predominately solitary creatures, they occupy territories that are defended against intruders of the same sex and are marked with urine and scrapes at the boundaries (2). Males have larger territories that overlap those of several females, with whom they mate (2). Mating occurs throughout the year and the female gives birth to a litter of around two to three cubs after a four month gestation period (3). Cubs learn to hunt and kill from around six months of age but remain dependent on their mother for at least 15 months, after which time they will disperse to find their own territory (2).
Tigers are 'stalk and ambush' predators and their stripy coat provides effective camouflage in tall grass and forest (2). Hunting mainly occurs at night and the principal prey consists of deer and wild pigs, although tigers prey on a variety of other animals and will also eat carrion (3). Unlike other species of cats, tigers are competent swimmers; they will readily enter the water, and can be found lying half-submerged in streams and lakes in the mid-day heat (3).
Threats
Human activities are the principal cause of declining tiger numbers. Hunting was a major cause of mortality in the past; both for trophies and as part of organised pest control measures (3). Poaching and illegal killing, for example by livestock owners, today remains one of the major threats to the survival of the species, particularly with the growing demand for tiger bones in Oriental ‘medicine' (5). The demand for remedies made from tiger parts has increased due to increasing affluence in Asia, and laws preventing international trade in tiger parts are largely ignored. Hong Kong is the main importer of tiger products, with tiger bone the most used part. The bones are crushed to be used in anti-inflammatory drugs for rheumatism and arthritis, amongst many other uses. The trade in tiger skins is also increasing (11). Habitat loss has occurred through much of the tiger's range and also threatens survival; as land becomes rapidly developed to meet the increasing demand of the Asian population explosion (3), tiger populations become isolated in remaining fragments of wilderness and ultimately die out (2). The tiger's natural prey species have declined in numbers due to over-hunting, leading individuals to turn to domestic livestock, which inevitably causes conflict with local farmers (3).
Conservation
The tiger is classified as Endangered by the IUCN (the World Conservation Union), and of the six surviving subspecies the futures of the South China tiger and the Siberian tiger seem particularly bleak. Recent extensive surveys resulted in no sightings (10). India has the greatest number of tigers but even the Bengal tiger population is estimated at no more than 3,000 to 3,500 individuals (3). TRAFFIC (the trade monitoring arm of the WWF and IUCN) monitors the level of international trade of tiger products and brings it to the attention of the relevant authorities (6). The Indian government established Project Tiger in 1973 (7) with the aim of conserving the tiger population. Within India there are currently 21 tiger reserves, although, these are increasingly threatened by human pressures on the land (3). The key to the survival of the tiger is the maintenance of large tracts of contiguous habitat, but protection of this species is complicated by its man-eater reputation and by the threat posed to livestock (2). The involvement and commitment of local people will be vital for the future sustainability of this most regal of cats.