Аспирантура
Кафедра английского языка
Вступительный экзамен по английскому языку
(Образцы экзаменационных заданий)
2010 год
I. Using a dictionary prepare a written translation of the text (времявыполнения 45 минут)
Mediated and Unmediated Politics
As later chapters in this book (notably Chapters 6-8, by Hine, Andeweg, and Richardson) discuss in detail, the relations between the governmental élites and the mass public in liberal democracies are mediated by political parties and organized interests. The emergence of universal suffrage necessitated the development of mass parties, based mainly upon religion and class, augmented by urban--rural and centre--periphery tensions, which linked the party leaders, via their parliamentary parties and constituency activists, with their membership and voters. The decline of these parties in the second half of the twentieth century has varied
between countries and type of party, with some parties or countries bucking the trend. Thus, whereas in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Britain party membership has fallen substantially, there have been modest increases in Germany and Belgium over the thirty years from the 1960s to 1980s (see Table 7.4 below). Again, whereas particularly large falls have occurred in the left-wing parties with the largest memberships-for example, the British Labour Party or the French Communist Party-there have also been significant falls in conservative and agrarian parties, with a more mixed but mainly negative record among Christian Democratic, Social Democratic, and liberal parties. The level of party activism has declined, so that the linkage between the leaders and the mass of voters has been weakened, although it is often the case that the leaders have more in common with the views of the electorate than with their partisans, as Tony Blair has shown in the rejuvenated Labour Party.
Political corruption (particularly through the links with party finance) as well as personal corruption, has become a systematic and endemic source of the discredit from which party élites and business élites suffer, both at the national and local levels. This has been connected in Europe, notably in Italy, France, and Spain, with prolonged periods in power of the same party or coalition, with the predictable tendency for absolute power to corrupt absolutely. Scandals have been associated with both the public sector and the private sector, as well as in the privatized sector, with domestic as well as foreign business. As parties have been able to rely less on the unpaid service of activists, their financial needs have grown. So the members of the legislative and executive élites have been inclined to resort to dubious sources of finance, exposing themselves to increasingly uninhibited judicial and journalistic censure, which in turn has undermined the shaky standing of the political class with public opinion. The cry 'Tous pourris' comes readily to the populist, and in the 1990s there has been plenty of ammunition to fire at those who have profited from or condoned such malpractices. Insufficient circulation of the élites has allowed too many politicians to rely upon the public relations resources of office as a substitute for remaining in touch with their erstwhile supporters. They have used public office for private or partisan benefit.
II. Scan and translate the text (Времяподготовки – 2 минуты)
5. Opponents Seize Initiative as Senate Bill Nears
Environmentalists say it is crucial for the Senate to act now: In December, a conference in Copenhagen is supposed to create an international climate-change treaty. They fear that if the United States arrives without any plans to cut its emissions, other countries will feel emboldened to do less. To get the Senate to do something similar, environmentalists are buying TV ads, running phone banks and holding public events. Much of the effort is coordinated from a "war room" shared with labor and veterans groups in Washington's Chinatown.
Oil and natural gas groups have always had deeper pockets. In the first six months of 2009, the Center for Responsive Politics found they spent $82.1 million lobbying Washington on various issues, including climate policy. In the same time, environmental and health groups concerned
with climate change spent about $6.6 million on lobbying and clean-energy firms $12.1 million, according to two other analyst groups, the Center for Public Integrity and New Energy Finance.
But last week, the impact of industry money really started to show in this debate.
The National Association of Manufacturers said it was spending millions on TV ads in 13 states, calling climate-change legislation "anti-jobs, anti-energy."
The U.S. Chamber of Commerce began its road show with an event in South Dakota. "Reality is now being transmitted into the political system," said Bill Kovacs, of the chamber of commerce.
Environmental groups dispute the "reality" part. They have called the Energy Citizens and other industry-sponsored organizations "astroturf" -- fake grass roots, professional activists and paid employees masquerading as concerned citizens.
III. Get ready to answer the examiners’ questions about your background, work and research, your plans for the future