Chapter Five
Political Parties
I. The Role of Political Parties
A. Characteristics of Political Parties
1. A group of people
2. Joined together by common principles
a. While party leaders may claim common beliefs, there can be great diversity of opinion among the members
b. American political parties are not primarily driven by principles, but ideological purity does seem to be increasing in both parties (there are fewer liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats)
3. Seeking to control the government
4. Motivated by a desire to affect certain public policies and programs
a. For some politicians controlling the government is the only real motivation
b. “Winning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing.” – Vince Lombardi
B. Functions of Political Parties
1. Incidental Functions
a. Political parties are essential to our government even though the Constitution never mentions them
b. Parties link the people to the government and facilitate communication between them
c. Parties help to forge compromise between different competing interests
2. Major Functions
a. Nominating Candidates
i. Parties recruit and promote candidates for office
ii. Party members decide their respective party’s choice of candidate through primary elections
iii. Parties help candidates run their campaigns
iv. Parties keep the campaign apparatus running between elections
1. Raising money
2. Training staff
3. Researching issues
v. Nominating candidates is the distinctive function of parties (it separates them from all other interest groups)
b. Informing and Activating Supporters
i. Parties encourage their members to contribute time, money, or other resources to the political process
ii. Parties help to inform the public about the issues in government
1. Parties use television, pamphlets, conventions, rallies, the internet, etc.
2. Most parties will present information in the most advantageous way (propaganda)
iii. Parties discourage the public from supporting other parties’ candidates by criticizing them
iv. Parties share the informing and activating functions with the news media and interest groups
c. Bonding Agent
i. By acting as a bonding agent, parties try to ensure the good performance of its candidates and officeholders
ii. Qualifications for office may also include good moral character
iii. Failure to enforce good behavior usually translates into electoral loss
d. Governing
i. Parties help coordinate the efforts of various office-holders
1. State legislators and Congressmen organize themselves by party
2. Executive appointments to office are usually made based on party loyalties (partisanship)
ii. Parties can both help and hinder cooperation between the branches of government
e. Watchdog
i. The party out of power (whichever doesn’t control the executive office) carefully watches and criticizes the party in power
ii. The party out of power is often called the loyal opposition – opposition to the governing party, loyal to the interests of the nation
II. The Two-Party System
A. Historical Basis
1. Despite the Framer’s opposition to the idea of political parties, they developed in the earliest years of our republic
a. The debate over ratifying the Constitution created two distinct interests, the Federalists and Anti-Federalists
b. Alexander Hamilton eventually emerged as the leader of the Federalist Party
c. Thomas Jefferson eventually emerged as the leader of the Anti-Federalists, who called themselves Democratic-Republicans
2. The parties have usually defied the Framer’s predictions of dividing the country, as each attempts to attract large, national followings
B. Reinforcement from the Electoral System
1. The two-party system has been so long established that many believe that it is a self-perpetuating system
2. The election process favors the two-party system in significant ways
a. Each election is determined by the outcomes in a specific district, and there is no chance to split the representation in that district
b. The representation of each district goes to the candidate with the plurality (highest number of votes, whether it’s a majority of votes or not) in that district
c. All minor parties desiring to win the next election have no choice but to merge or at least form an alliance
d. Voters are likely to abandon parties that do not attempt to merge and win (considering it a wasted vote)
3. Both of the major political parties usually cooperate to limit ballot access
a. Minor political parties typically have to work much harder (gather more signatures, etc.) to qualify for a place on the ballot
b. Few minor parties can garner the resources to consistently overcome these hurdles
C. The American Ideological Consensus
1. Over time, most Americans have shared most of the same basic beliefs (i.e. capitalism, representative democracy, etc.)
2. Sharp disagreements have occurred over specific issues like slavery and abortion, but they have not led to permanent, unbridgeable political divisions
a. Other nations have struggled with seemingly permanent divisions based on economic class, social status, religious belief, or national origin
b. In spite of growing increasingly diverse in recent years, those divisions still don’t exist in the United States
3. Both parties compete for moderate voters who are not committed to either party, leading them to avoid taking positions that are too extreme
D. Alternatives to the Two-Party System
1. Multi-Party Systems
a. A system in which several major and many minor parties seriously compete for political power
b. Common in European and other parliamentary systems
c. Each party is typically organized for a special interest (i.e. economic class, religion, or ideology)
d. Proponents argue that multi-party systems give voters more meaningful choices
e. The greatest weakness of a multi-party system is that a single party very rarely wins a majority
i. This requires it to form a governing coalition with another party or parties
ii. The coalition partners may have very little in common, and the period of cooperation may be short
iii. This often leads to instability
2. One-Party Systems
a. More appropriately called a “no-party system”
b. Common in dictatorships, where political dissent is suppressed
c. Different regions of the United States have been thoroughly dominated by one party or the other at different times, providing examples of democratic one-party systems
E. Party Membership
1. Membership in a party is strictly voluntary, and you may register as an “independent” if you choose
2. In areas where one party is particularly strong, many voters will join that party to better influence their representation through the primary election
3. Each American party draws members from every demographic, but some demographics do more strongly associate with one party
a. Democratic groups typically include Jews, African-Americans, women, and union members
b. Republican groups typically include whites, males, and businessmen
4. Family is the strongest predictor of political affiliation (odds are you will be what your parents were)
5. Major historical events like the Civil War and Great Depression also dramatically reshape the political landscape
III. The Two Party System Through History
A. The Emergence of Parties, 1789 to 1800
1. Federalist Party
a. Favored the interests of trade and manufacture
b. Strongest in the Northeast and in cities
c. Believed in a strong central government and loose interpretation of the Constitution
d. Prominent members included Alexander Hamilton, President John Adams, and, arguably, George Washington
e. Effectively disappeared by 1816
2. Anti-Federalist Party
a. Favored the interests of small farmers
b. Strongest in the South and countryside
c. Believed in strong state governments and a strict interpretation of the Constitution
d. Prominent members included Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison
e. Variably known as the Jeffersonian Republicans and Democratic-Republicans, eventually emerged as the modern Democratic Party
B. Democratic Dominance, 1800 to 1860
1. During this period, Democrats won the presidency 13 out of 15 times
2. In what has been called the Era of Good Feelings (1816 to 1824) there was no national party to challenge the Democratic-Republicans
3. By 1828, the Democratic-Republican party had split into factions: National Republicans (Whigs) and Democrats
a. The Whigs pursued many programs that would have appealed to former Federalists, such as national improvements
b. Prominent Whigs included Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Presidents W.H. Harrison and Taylor
c. The Democrats continued to appeal primarily to lower income and rural voters
d. Prominent Democrats included President Andrew Jackson
4. By 1860, the Democrats were hopelessly split by the issue of slavery
C. Republican Dominance, 1860 to 1932
1. During this period, Republicans won the presidency 14 out of 18 times
2. The Republican party was formed by former Whigs and abolitionist Democrats
3. The Republican party is the only political party in American history to go from third-party to major-party status
4. During this period, the national political scene was dominated by sectionalism – allegiance to regional interests
a. Republicans had the support of most of the Union states and the freed slaves
b. Democrats controlled the states of the former Confederacy
c. William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic candidate in 1896, began to shift the focus from sectionalism to economic interests
5. The Republicans suffered a split between W.H. Taft and T. Roosevelt in 1912, but returned to power eight years later
D. Democratic Dominance, 1932 to 1968
1. During this period, Democrats won the presidency 7 out of 9 times
2. The Great Depression shattered the previous political alignment and allowed Franklin Roosevelt to form his overwhelming New Deal Coalition based mostly on economic interests
3. The New Deal Coalition began to show signs of fracture during the tumults of the 1960s (Civil Rights Era, Feminist Movement, etc.)
E. Divided Government, 1968 to Present
1. During this period, Republicans won the presidency 7 out of 10 times
2. Unlike previous periods, the Congress and presidency have usually been controlled by different parties
3. Republicans have controlled both Congress and the presidency since 2000, and some have predicted that a new Republican Era is beginning, but the country is still very evenly split
IV. The Minor Parties (“Third Parties”)
A. Although they have little chance of taking power in America, minor parties are still important
1. Innovation
a. Original ideas may begin with minor parties and then gain acceptance from the major parties (i.e. holding national nominating conventions for President)
b. Third parties may champion non-traditional approaches and solutions to conventional problems
2. Spoiler Role
a. In close elections, third parties may siphon enough support from a major party candidate to change the outcome of the election
b. In recent elections, Democrats have supported conservative third parties, while Republicans have supported liberal third parties, hoping to help their respective candidates
3. Democratic Safety Valve - Third parties give disaffected citizens a chance to protest within the system, theoretically making revolution less likely
B. Four Distinct Categories of Minor Parties
1. Ideological Parties
a. These parties are based on a single, all-encompassing set of beliefs
b. Most American ideological parties have grown out of Marxism (i.e. Communists, Socialists, Socialist Labor, Socialist Worker, etc.)
c. Another enduring ideological party, the Libertarian, is founded on a minimalist approach to government and strong individualism
2. Single-Issue Parties
a. These parties focus on a single public policy
b. Examples include the Free Soil Party (opposing the spread of slavery), the American (“Know Nothing”) Party (opposing non-Anglo-Saxon immigration), and the Right to Life Party (opposing abortion)
c. Most single-issue parties fade when their issue loses significance or their position is adopted by one of the major parties
3. Economic Protest Parties
a. Lacking the broad ideologies of some minor parties, economic protest parties are not quite single-issue parties because they usually pursue a package of economic reforms
b. Examples include the Greenback and Populist Parties (issues included control of the money supply, railroads, utilities, taxes, tariffs, etc.)
c. Economic protest parties fade when the economy improves or when their positions are adopted by one of the major parties
4. Splinter Parties
a. These parties split from the major parties, sometimes over an issue, but usually under a strong leader
b. Examples include the Progressive Party and Dixiecrats
c. Most splinter parties fade when they rejoin a major party
5. Some parties defy easy categorization (i.e. Green Party, originally single-issue, now seems to be developing into an ideological party)
V. Party Organization
A. Political parties may be considered by their three components
1. The Party Apparatus
a. The leaders, activists, donors, and employees of the political parties
b. Largely responsible for recruiting and assisting candidates while keeping the parties functional between elections
2. The Party in the Electorate
a. Voters who loyally support a particular party but seldom participate in any other way
b. The vast majority of party members are in this category
3. The Party in Government
a. The members elected or appointed to government positions
b. The smallest, but possibly the most influential, segment of the party
B. Decentralized Nature of Political Parties
1. The three components of a party are usually widely dispersed with several centers of power
a. Headquarters usually exist at the local, state, and national level, and nothing ensures that those leaders necessarily get along well
b. The party in power is usually more solidly united because of the President’s leadership
c. The President leads his party through his access to publicity, money, and government favors
2. Several causes keep the parties decentralized
a. Federalism: our government is decentralized, so the parties are also
b. The Nominating Process: intra-party fights over nominations lead to some splintering
C. Party Machines
1. National parties consist of four basic elements
a. National Convention
i. Quadrennial gatherings of party members
ii. Nominates candidates for president and vice-president
iii. Establishes party platforms (statements of positions and beliefs)
iv. Showcases the party leaders before a national audience
b. National Committee
i. Supposedly steers the party between conventions, but exercises little control
ii. Most of its work centers on organizing the conventions
c. National Chairman
i. The leader of the national committee, elected by it to a four-year term
ii. In fact, national chairmen are appointed by the newly nominated presidential candidates in consultation with the committees
iii. Primarily responsible for overseeing the headquarters staff in Washington, D.C. and working to strengthen the party’s membership and fundraising
d. Congressional Campaign Committees
i. The party also organizes campaign committees in each house of Congress
ii. These committees work to protect incumbents
iii. These committees are chosen and directed by the members of Congress
2. State and Local
a. National parties are largely set by custom or tradition, but state parties are often controlled by state law
b. State Parties
i. Organized around a central committee, headed by a chairman
ii. The chairman may be independently influential, but more likely serves as a proxy for a governor, senator, or other powerful politician
iii.State parties focus on building membership, raising money, and fielding candidates
c. Local Parties
i. Great variations exist in the party organizations at the local level
ii. Generally organized within the electoral districts of the state
iii. Cities are often further divided into wards for efficiency or increased participation
iv. Voters are organized into precincts, small areas that share a polling station
v. Many local organizations are mostly dormant outside of election season
D. The Future of the Major Parties
1. Americans may not be enthusiastic about political parties, but their existence is taken for granted
2. Political parties have been declining in many ways since the 1960s
a. Increasing numbers of voters refuse to identify and register with either party
b. Many more voters split their votes between the parties (voting for different parties for different offices)
c. Some states are forcing more open political processes (i.e. allowing independents to vote in party primaries)
d. Changing campaign strategies, such as using new technologies, make candidates less reliant on the party machines for mobilizing voters
e. Interest groups (“special interests”) that exist independently from the parties have been playing greater roles in fundraising, etc.
3. To paraphrase Mark Twain, “Reports of their death have been greatly exaggerated.”