Hist/HRS 127 – Topics CoveredSpring 2002
Introduction
What are we studying? History of religion in an ecumenical and historical spirit, i.e., recognize that all Christians are brothers, sisters and cousins in the same family; and that we are endeavoring as historians to find out what happened rather than who was right and who wrong.
Brief chronological survey of main Christian traditions (flow chart).
The Latin Church in the Middle Ages
The church is clerical and sacramental: the clergy are the teachers and the commanders, and the laity (vast majority of the population) are the learners and the obeyers; the seven sacraments communicate God’s divine grace (but remember that personal piety is always relevant). Also the communion of saints.
The Late Middle Ages – the age of mechanical Christianity. Colet’s and Erasmus’s visit to Canterbury; the doctrine of indulgences and the sermons of Tetzel.
Scriptural readings relevant to Protestant/Catholic controversies in the Reformation. In sum, the Protestants tended to rely on Romans; the Catholics on other readings from the New Testament, and to justify the communion of saints and the existence of Purgatory, readings from the Apocrypha.
Bainton on Martin Luther
Early life and influences; father; heaven/hell; a “terrible” God.
As an Augustinian monk: feelings of unworthiness; works do not help; read Romans, and finally comes to the realization that it is through the gift of faith through Jesus Christ that we are saved and assured of salvation.
Protest against indulgences, 1517; final break with the Church (papacy) about 1520 after his ideas become much more extreme (round denunciation of the papacy, and denial of the efficacy of most sacraments).
Luther’s main theological ideas -- the priesthood of all believers, scriptura sola, the sovereignty of God and depravity of man, salvation through faith with works as natural outgrowth of our living in God's freely granted grace.
His later life: tirades against the Jews, Peasants, the Pope, etc. Lives a life of domesticity. No position of formal authority in the Lutheran “church.”
John Calvin and his influence. Agrees with Luther on most points; but stresses double predestination, different theology of Eucharist, gloomier view of human nature.
Impact in Switzerland, parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Scotland, and of course Puritans in North America.
Geographical impact of the Reformation: Protestant areas and Catholic areas; France as a middle case. N.b., no one practices toleration in the 16th century or in the early 17th century; exception is (more or less) toleration of Huguenots in France after 1598.
The Anabaptists. Base all on Scripture only, esp. the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5). Reject the state; “gathered” churches with their “colony in the world”; no infant baptism; generally pacifist; importance of the Holy Spirit. Only minority are millenarians and belief in forcible conversion. Most famous leader is Menno Simons (1496-1651).
The Counter-Reformation; the Catholic Reformation
Pius V raises standards of behavior; the Council of Trent (1545-63) firms up doctrine (“Decree on Justification”); reforms clergy; the liberals lose; the Church on the counter-attack. Charles Borromeo is the ideal Tridentine bishop in Milan.
Liturgy is inflexible, formal, Latin; but now regular; general trend toward grandiose, sensuous, “beautiful” in liturgy. Many saints (Italy in the late 16th century and France throughout the 17th century) indicate the aggressive spirituality of the Church: ideal bishops; emphasis on reading and education (Jean-Baptiste de la Salle promotes popular education); lay piety; devotions such as Sacred Heart promoted by Margaret Mary.
The Jesuits: founded by Ignatius of Loyola (d. 1556). Founds his order in France 1534; approved by Pope in 1540. Core value = obedience to your superiors and ultimately to the Pope. Original mission = missions and pilgrimage; soon comes to concentrate on education (of the wealthy and powerful) and on missionary work.
Jesuits have major impact on Europe, especially in the field of education (cf. Peter Canisius in Germany), and in the winning back of marginal areas in Central Europe back to Catholic allegiance.
Jesuits are very active in the missions, especially in China, Latin America (cf. the reducciones of South America in the 18th century); but especially in
Japan: Francis Xavier, “the Apostle of the Indies” was very fond of the Japanese; he and Alessandro Valignano foresaw Japan being a great Christian Commonwealth; local conditions (religious and political upheaval) favored the cause of the Jesuits; Valignano was an accommodationist, in the tradition of St. Paul insisting on a native clergy; great success (300,000-700,000 by the turn of the century?). Problems surface – shogun unifies Japan and the Japanese elite fears European imperialism. Provocations lead to radical persecution resulting in the virtual extermination of the Japanese Christians by the middle of the 17th century.
Formation of the Anglican Church
Henry VIII was quite orthodox; but placed the English king at the head of the Church.
Calvinist Protestants gain the upper hand under poor Edward; and then “Bloody” Mary restore Catholicism briefly during her reign (1553-58).
Elizabeth I is not an intensely religious person; wants a settlement that brings peace and prosperity to England: result is the Elizabethan Settlement.
The Elizabethan Settlement: a via media between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism: “Protestant and Reformed according to the Ancient Catholic Church.”
-- 39 Articles: tend to be Protestant in content: sufficiency of Scripture, reject transubstantiation, justification by faith, etc. Important – not fully mandatory, i.e., Anglicans are enjoined not to contradict it!
-- Book of Common Prayer: much more Catholic, although important changes – no ‘altar,’ no sacrifice, service in English.
-- Elizabeth insists on apostolic success (duly ordained bishops)
17th century developments: the “Judicious” Hooker, William Laud and the Caroline Divines: emphasize real presence, apostolic succession, importance of tradition (fondness for Aquinas!). Laud loses his head for his beliefs.
Emergence of toleration in England
General: wars of religion and extreme instances of intolerance (persecution of witches) produces a revulsion about 1650 against use of force to ensure orthodoxy.
England: early 17th century a (rather) conservative Anglican establishment under Laud and Charles I faces off a vocal and powerful Calvinist minority who want Church of England to take a Calvinist direction. Calvinists (including Scottish Presbyterians) in charge in 1640-1660. Charles II restores Anglicanism in 1660. James II (1685-88) breaks compact and seems to be ready to restore Catholicism! Bloodless “Glorious Revolution” brings William and Mary to throne in 1688.
A system of semi-toleration emerges by the beginning of the 18th century; Dissenters are allowed to practice their religion freely, but they are not allowed to vote or hold public office. Irish Catholics have less luck: the condition of Catholics in Ireland remain very oppressive until Catholic Emancipation in 1829. After about 1830 disabilities are removed from English Dissenters (now including the Methodists) and Irish Catholics, and the Church of Ireland (Anglican Church in Ireland) is disestablished. The Anglican Church however remains the official church in England under the authority of the monarch.
Jansenists and Jesuits in France: 17th century.
Jesuits have great power and influence in French society and religion in the mid-17th century – confessional and education. Jansenism, with its seemingly Calvinist (Protestant) theology is gaining influence among the middle classes and intelligentsia. Pascal converts to Jansenism about 1640.
Pascal pillories Jesuits in his “Lettres provinciales:” Jesuits interested in power and influence and they will say virtually anything to anybody to get it; particularly guilty of laxism, whereby excuses are energetically sought for virtually any kind of behavior (says Pascal).
Unbelief and skepticism make their appearance in France in the 17th century. Pascal attacks the issue with his “wager” argument in the most famous of his Pensées. His argument is influenced by his knowledge of mathematics. He does not try to give an irrefutable rational proof of the existence of God in the manner of St. Anselm of Canterbury. He is concerned to 1) demonstrate that belief in God is not unreasonable, i.e., something that can be reasonably considered; and 2) in the wager argument he addresses to “whole man” or the whole psyche in challenging the non-believer to lay the bet that God exists; because you have nothing to lose by doing so (since you are already a non-believer), and you have everything to gain (virtue in this world and happiness in the next). Pascal as a sort of existentialist.
The Enlightenment in the 18th Century – focused on France 1725-75, but has significant influence in most of the western world, e.g., England, Scotland, North America and Germany. This is the crystallization/distillation of modern secular values; the “secular humanism” we hear so much about.
Typical ideas: concern for the welfare/happiness of the individual human being to be achieved in this world. Thinkers use their reason to look into nature to determine what we have to change to make people happy. The basic value that works is liberty, which affects politics, economics and religion. Don’t expect everything to get better right away, but humanity will progress (probably gradually) toward a better/happier future.
The Enlightenment idea of religion is usually called natural religion. It consists of a conviction that reason can prove the existence of a watchmaker (non-personal) God; that faith and revelation is generally not needed; that toleration is mandatory; that what matters in religious matters is to teach virtue.
Joseph Addison in a short poem deduces the existence and power of God by contemplating the universe revealed to us by Isaac Newton’s laws.
Voltaire in his article on “Arius” denounces disputes over metaphysical/theological subtleties; praises Constantine as a “sensible” man who forced warring theologians to settle their differences. Enthusiasm is dangerous.
Benjamin Franklin was a relaxed deist (believer in natural religion), believer in good virtuous behavior, not sure about the divinity of Jesus (at the age of 84 he will find out soon enough), and advocates toleration for everyone.
The Church of England was not known for its “sacrificial ardor” (Green) in the 18th century. Anglican clergymen did their duty, and there was not much major scandal; but there was a certain relaxed, live-and-let-live quality about it. Bishops had to have good connections. Clergymen had fairly high status in English society; most of them went to Oxford or Cambridge to prepare to be clergymen; Latitudinarianism was the standard doctrine of the Church. William Hogarth and others satirized the worldliness of the Anglican Church. Parson James Woodforde (Norfolk, end of the 18th century) did his duty and performed services required of him; but his Diary indicates that what he cared about was his health, food and other creature comforts (no wonder he had gout!)
John Wesley (Green’s biography).
Wesleycame from a Church family. Both parents were rather dominating; his father was a difficult person and a Tory; his mother was ambitious for him and pushed him to achieve; John’s brother, Charles, also became a clergyman.
John had a mixed experience when he “went up” to Oxford. Academically the curriculum was relaxed and easy-going; John’s lifestyle was very sociable and phlegmatic – he was attracted to women, played cards and slept in late. Reading on his own was “catholic” and focused on the ancient Church; he and his Holy Club (“Methodist”) friends also performed numerous good works and recommended frequent reception of Holy Communion. Nevertheless, the “sacrificial ardor” was missing; a spiritual crisis drove him to Georgia.
John’s experience in Georgia was disastrous: he again fluttered in the flame of his invincible sensuality; he was dictatorial, alienating many people; he tried to impost High Church ideas on unreceptive people; he left in disgrace.
His “conversion” was a psychological necessity after the Georgia experience. The (Anabaptist) Moravians preached to him the importance of recognizing Jesus as his personal savior, and Peter Bohler told him to quit reasoning! 1738 – John feels inner spiritual warmth just a short time after his brother Charles and after reading Luther’s commentary on Romans. John weakens some, but Bohler tells him to preach the word, and that will strengthen his faith.
His early ministry was a huge success, because of John’s own energy (traveled 250,000 miles!), his entire dedication, and the Church of England’s neglect of urban parishes. In the beginning the reaction to his preaching was often very emotional. He often received a cool reception from Anglican priests although he insisted that he was there just to renew the Church. Bishops, such as Joseph Butler, were often suspicious, but tolerant and non-committal.
John’s marriage to Molly Vazeille was a disaster, probably from the beginning. He was too focused on his ministry, too inflexible and egotistical, to get along with admittedly a difficult woman. The question is not why his marriage didn’t last, but why did he marry in the first place.
John’s theology included justification by faith, and the idea of sanctification down the road to Christian perfection. He was an ardent arminian, i.e., Jesus came to save all people, not just the elect; he strongly rejected Calvinist predestinarianism (“you make God worse than the Devil!”), although his friend George Whitefield was a Calvinist. Calvinists in Methodism usually stayed in the Church of England, on the Evangelical side.
Methodist communities were organized separately from the local Anglican parishes, although John always insisted that he was loyal to the Church of England. Separately trained lay preachers conducted the Methodist liturgies, including prayer services and agape meals based on the example of the Moravians. The organization was tightly controlled by John. The style was puritan. Anglican priests were usually not friendly, although the bishops remained typically tolerant. In effect, a separate Church was growing up.
John remained very active in his old age. His organization formally broke off from the Church of England in the 1780’s when John personally ordained ministers for the Methodist parishes in the USA.
Impact of the Wesleyan movement. Methodist churches thrived in both USA and Britain. Many schisms occurred in the early 19th century, often over religious style (primitivism vs. High Church style), and in the USA over slavery. The trend in the 20th century has been reunion and consolidation. Methodism promoted humanitarian reform, even though John Wesley was basically a conservative; the abolition of the slave trade was due partly to the influence of Methodism, as exercised through the Anglican Evangelicals. Methodist Calvinists who left Methodism to return to the Anglican Church played a major role in the Church of England as Evangelicals. Some authors think that it was because of Methodism and Wesley that England avoided a social/political revolution in the 19th century.
The Catholic Church in the French Revolution.
The Catholic Church in 18th century France (about 1780) was Gallican, under the control of the state and pretty much independent from Rome. It was closely tied to the interests of the propertied classes in France. It had many social and cultural responsibilities, e.g., registration of births, deaths and marriages, education at all levels, virtually all charitable activities. It was internally divided between the mass of parish priests who were close to their parishioners and not well off; and the privileged groups (bishops, chapter officials, many monks and nuns) who were often nobles and who “lived off the fat of the land.” The example of the city of Angers shows the excess wealth, the comfortable life styles, and the relative idleness in certain circles in the French Church.
The beginning of the French Revolution promised harmony in reforming the Church. There was a general agreement that the French Church should be streamlined, shorn of its abusive elements.
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), however, brought conflict and polarization: provisions for democratic elections of bishops and priests, and the required oath of compliance, when rejected by the Pope (1792) soon resulted in religious conflict between traditionalists (e.g., in the Vendée) and the Constitutional Church. Civil war broke out in France.
The Radical Republic under Robespierre (and others) brought an era of severe deChristianization: aside from the deChristianization of the calendar and the liturgical cycle, many priests were pursued and executed and mass was being said in few churches throughout France. The Republic under Robespierre tried to institute a Cult of the Supreme Being, that was deist between the extremes of “reactionary” Catholicism and the atheism of many revolutionary leaders. Needless to say, the cult never caught on.
Napoleon came to power (1799) to “cast boulders of granite on the shifting sands of French politics.” Napoleon had no Christian convictions of his own (religion induces people to accept inequality in the world), but wanted the Church back to act as his moral gendarme. The most popular thing he ever did was restore the position of the Church in the Concordat of 1801 that he signed with Pius VII: it restored France as the religion “of the majority of Frenchmen;” the state dominated the appointment of bishops; church officials were salaried by the state, but the Church did not recover its pre-1789 property. (Jews and Protestants benefited from a similar regime.) This settlement lasted until 1905. The Church lost its monopoly of education; its control over civil record-keeping (birth, marriage and death); divorce was now legal. Napoleon “mistreated” Pius VII when, due to a disagreement, he imprisoned him from about 1808 to 1814; the pope emerged as a kind of hero who stood up to the bully.