Grammar Revision Infinitive, Participle, Gerund

UNIT 3

TEXTROCKS

GRAMMAR REVISION INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE, GERUND.

Ex.1.Read the following international words and word combinations and give their Russian equivalents.

magma, granite, quartzite, intrusive, texture, reservoir, lava, basalt, volcano, to erode, pore, to metamorphose, aggregates of minerals, accumulation and cementation of fragments, physical characteristics, typical metamorphic agent

Ex.2.Give all the possible derivatives of the following words. Translate them into Russian.

Hard; to differ; to solve; to compose; deposit; divide; form; inhabit; to vary; origin; to depend; measure; change.

Ex.3.State the part of speech of the underlined words. Translate the sentences.

Glacial deposits have almost no relation to the character and the structure of the underlying rocks.
Glaciers deposit their loads on almost any surface, on land, in fresh water, or in the sea.
The change in fossil forms results from the change in conditions.
This results in a general blowing of the air from the poles towards the equator.
An earthquake is any vibration of the earth’s surface due to natural causes.
The formation of clay minerals is the direct result of weathering (выветривание).
The rotation of the earth causes day and night change.
The rise of temperature causes snow to melt.
The possibility that some of the material lying on the lunar surface is chemically unchanged since the formation of the planet remains high.
These rocks are made up in part or entirely of the remains of animals and plants.
Running water can never lower very large areas of the land below sea level.
The lower limit of wave action varies.
Roads and railroads often follow both banks of a river, since the land there is fairly level.
The work of the atmosphere is to level the land surface.
Variations in the temperature of the atmosphere effect great changes in rocks.
Temperature changes are usually of more effect in the case of igneous rocks than in that of sedimentary rocks.

Ex.4.Translate the following sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the Infinitives.

e.g. 1).To divide rocks into classes we should know the modes of their origin.

Чтобы подразделить породы на классы, нам следует знать характер их залегания.

2).Rivers carry their debris and deposit it at the estuary to be dealt with later on thesea.

Реки несут с собой обломочный материал и откладывают его в устье, а затем эти обломки поступают в распоряжение моря.

To trace the evolution of the earth and its inhabitants we must study geology as well as other sciences which are concerned with the physical processes on and within the earth.
To understand the origin and classification of rocks we must learn something about the various minerals composing them.
Fragments of rocks, minerals and organisms accumulate at the earth surface to form sedimentary rocks.
To begin the study of the earth we have to know something about its dimension, shape, and outer zones.
To understand the meaning of the word “petroleum” we must know its origin.
To be classed as hard rocks must resist abrasion or scratching.
Some heavy elements unite readily with oxygen to make oxides and with silicon to make silicates.

Ex.5.Translate the following into English.

Для того чтобы подняться на поверхность……
Для того чтобы исследовать породу………
Для того чтобы понять происхождение земли ……..
Для того чтобы классифицировать эти породы…….
Для того чтобы изучить состав породы………
Для того чтобы отличить эти минералы……..
Для того чтобы увидеть отдельные зерна песка…….
Для того чтобы пробить себе путь……..

Ex.6.Translate the following sentences into English.

Для того чтобы различить образцы пород, нужно рассмотреть их под микроскопом.
Для того чтобы рассмотреть минералы, слагающие породу, он взял увеличительное стекло.
Он провел ряд исследований, чтобы понять происхождение породы.
Чтобы начать изучение земли, необходимо знать ее размеры и форму.
Чтобы понять происхождение и классификацию пород, важно знать состав минералов, из которых они состоят.

Ex.7.Translate the following sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the Verbals (неличныеформыглагола) underlined.

When solidifying magma turns into an igneous rock.

При затвердевании магма превращается в изверженную породу.

Magma forces its way through strata thus causing the overlying rock layers to be domed.

Магма пробивается сквозь пласты пород, тем самым выгибая эти вышележащие слои в куполообразные формы.

On reaching the surface molten material solidifies into an extrusive igneous rock.

Достигая поверхности, расплавленное вещество затвердевает и превращается в эффузивную магматическую породу.

When examining a fragment of rock or a handful of soil more closely we find that it is a mixture of different substances.
Many different factors have to be considered when selecting a site for drilling.
In examining rocks a geologist distinguishes two major groups.
It is important when exploring a new area, to determine whether the organic matter has been heated enough to produce oil.
It’s often very difficult to identify a mineral simply by looking at it.
When determining hardness, mineralogists usually scratch the rock.
When conducting geological exploration in the field, a geologist should be able to identify the principal minerals with a naked eye.
While studying the west coast of Africa and the east coast of South America, Alfred Wegener noticed the extraordinary way these coasts mirrowedeach other.

Ex.8.Translate the following sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the construction «Nominative +Infinitive”.

e.g. 1).Rocks are known to be divided into three great classes.

Известно, что породыделятсянатрибольшиегруппы.

2). Earth appears to have undergone cyclic changes.

По-видимому, Земляпретерпеваетциклическиеизменения.

Quarts, feldspar, mica, garnet, dolomite, and some others are known to constitute an important group of rock-forming minerals.

In many regions great thickness of strata is found to have been tilted, so that they now lie in inclined positions.
The earth is considered to have undergone great changes during its existence.
Some properties of minerals are likely to be associated with their internal structure.
The Earth seems to have been formed at least 4.55 billion years ago out of a cloud of cosmic dust.
The Himalayas are believed to be still rising by a measurable amount today.
The properties of minerals appear to be closely associated with their internal structure.
The word “geology” is not likely to be used in its present sense before the 17th century.
About half of the world’s oil reserves has been estimated by the geologists to occur in carbonates.
Igneous ricks are sure to be the most dense rocks.

WORDS TO THE TEXT “ROCKS”.

1.melt v.плавить(ся), таять

Snow melts when the sun shines.

The sugar melted in the tea.

2.erupt v.извергать(ся), выбрасывать

When a volcano erupts it throws out a lot of hot, melted rock called lava, as well as ash and steam.

3.solidify v.твердеть, застывать, кристаллизоваться

Water solidifies by reduction of temperature.

4.igneous adj.магматический, изверженный

In geology, igneous rocks are rocks that were once so hot that they were liquid.

5.extrusive adj.эффузивный

These hills are the extrusive edges of strata.

6.grade v.классифицировать, сортировать

I’ve graded their work from 1 to 10.

The species were graded by size.

7.coarse-grained adj.крупнозернистый

Ant. fine-grainedcourse-grained minerals

8.subsequentlyвпоследствии, позднее, позже

The Queen visited the new museum and subsequently attended a banquet in the Town Hall.

9.expose v.обнажать(ся), выходить на поверхность;

подвергать

The rocks are exposed at low tide.

Thousands of people were exposed to radiation when the nuclear reactor exploded.

10.precipitate n.осадок

The atmospherical precipitates are rain and snow.

precipitate v.осаждать(ся), выпадать (об осадках)

Particles may precipitate in crystalline form as a fine powder.

11.pile n.куча, кипа, пачка (геол.)

a pile of stones, a pile of papers, a pile of rocks

12.disturb v.нарушать, приводитьвбеспорядок

to disturb the order of deposition

13.folding n.образованиескладок

Folding is a geological process.

14.overturn v.опрокидывать(ся), переворачивать(ся)

The car hit a tree and overturned.

15. constituent adj.образующий, составляющийчастьцелого

Atoms are constituent parts of molecules.

16.clastic adj.обломочный, кластический

The word “clastic” is derived from Greek klastos”, meaning “broken in pieces”.

17.limestone n.известняк

Limestone is used as building material and in the making of cement.

18.sandstone n.песчаник

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock consisting of sand or quarts grains cemented together. It is often used for building houses and walls.

19.clay n.глина

Clay can be shaped and baked to make things such as pots and bricks, and ceramics.

20.subjectto v.подвергатьчему-либо

This metal should not be subjected to too high temperatures.

21.marble n.мрамор

The staircase of this palace is made of marble.

A marble statue.

Ex.9.Read the text and do the following tasks:

Give examples of each class of rocks.
Find the construction “Nominative + Infinitive”.
Find English equivalents to the following.

По-разному; характер происхождения; пробиться в другую породу; в любом случае; в основном; в виде лавы; глубинные массы; водные растворы; другими словами; снизу вверх; представляют большой интерес.

ROCKS

Rocks are aggregates of minerals. They form the solid crust of the earth. Different kinds of rocks contain different minerals, have different physical properties, and were formed in different ways. Geologists group the rocks of the earth’s crust into three types according to their mode of origin: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Deep in the earth’s crust, temperatures are high enough to melt rock into magma. Magma sometimes erupts to the surface as lava, or it may force its way into other solid rock underground. In either case, when magma cools, it solidifies, forming igneous rocks, such as granite and basalt.

Two subdivisions of the igneous rocks are recognized. The lavas and solid fragments erupted from volcanoes are called extrusive rocks. They are composed in large part of microscopic mineral crystals and glass. In a few places igneous rocks can be seen to grade into rocks composed of much larger crystals. These coarse-grained igneous rocks are called intrusive rocks , and are widespread at the earth’s surface, but have not been observed in process of formation. The intrusive rocks were not thrown up to the surface like lavas, but solidified deep underground. Subsequently, the roof rock that covered many of these buried masses was eroded away, thus exposing the intrusive rock at the surface.

The sedimentary rocks have been formed at the surface of the earth, either by accumulation and cementation of fragments of rocks, minerals, and organisms, or as precipitates from sea water, and other water solutions.

Most sedimentary rocks form distinct layers or strata. In any pile of sedimentary strata that has not been disturbed by folding or overturning since accumulation, the youngest stratum is at the top and the oldest at the base. In other words, the order of deposition is from the bottom upward. Sedimentary rocks are classified and named on the basis of their texture, that is, the size and shape of their constituent particles; and on their composition, that is, the kinds of minerals that compose the particles and cements. Two general subdivisions may be recognized: clastic sedimentary rocks and organic and chemical sedimentary rocks.

It should be noted that sedimentary rocks are of great interest to petroleum geologists because most oil and gas accumulations occur in these rocks due to their most important physical characteristics: porosity and permeability. The greater the porosity of a formation, the more petroleum it is able to hold. A rock is permeable when its pores are connected --- that is, oil, gas, and water can flow through it by moving from one pore to another. Thus to be commercially productive a petroleum reservoir must be both porous and permeable. Limestone, sandstone, and clay are considered to be typical sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are rocks ---either igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks---that have been buried deep in the earth where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures. The term comes from the Greek “meta”, the change, and “morphe”, form or shape. When undergoing the metamorphic process, physical and chemical properties of the original rock are found to change, thus altering rock composition and appearance. To form a metamorphic rock metamorphic agents (heat, pressure, various gases and vapors) interact with the parent rock. So, for example, limestone can be metamorphosed into marble, and sandstone into quartzite.

Ex.10. Pick up pairs of a) synonyms and b) antonyms

a)solid, like, type, bed, deep, size, sufficient, as, hold, little, layer, hard, high, various, make up, dimension, enough, kind, compose, different, profound, few, keep, tall,

b)different, high, coarse-grained, upward, permeable, solid, extrusive, downward, deep, low, top, same, fine-grained, shallow, low, bottom, impervious, intrusive.

Ex.11.Translate the following word combinations.

1. way / - the best way to learn the language; ways and means of examining rocks; in the same way; in different ways; the only way out; the shortest way to the station
2. high / - waves up to 40 meters high; high in the mountains; at high speed; goods of high quality; a highly-qualified specialist; highly-educated person
3. recognize / - to recognize somebody; to recognize three groups of rocks
4. solution / - water saline solution; the best solution of the problem
5. pile / - a pile of rocks; a pile of books
6. order / - the order of deposition; in order to do something; to keep documents in order
7. bottom / - the bottom of the sea; the bottom of the page; the order of deposition is from the bottom upward; the well bottom
8. subject / - the subject of discussion; school subject; the subject of a thesis; to subject substances to intense heat; a metal subject to corrosion

Ex.12.Say which word doesn’t match.

Form, make up, contain, shape.
Different, kind, various, unlike.
Property, characteristic, type, feature.
Solid, dense, hard, clastic.
Source rock, parent rock, mother rock, reservoir rock.
Cover, layer, bed, stratum.
Divide, link, disconnect, classify.
To change, to alter, to transform, to act.
General, common, only, usual.
To subject, to expose, to submit, to disturb.

Ex.13. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

Rocks composed almost entirely of fine-grained silica are common, but they are unlikely to form large masses.
Basalt is the world’s most abundant solidified lava.
Granite, characterized by a granular texture, has feldspar and quartz as its two most abundant minerals, and therefore most granite is light colored.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are those composed of broken fragments of pre-existing minerals, rock particles or precipitates that have been cemented together.
The materials erupted from volcanoes include solids, liquids and gases.
Naturally enough, as soon as the lava reaches the surface it cools rapidly and the fluid tends to solidify. In some cases the solidification occurs only at the surface and subsequently a stream of lava flows along beneath the hardened crust.
The conditions to which the rocks are subjected determine the kind of metamorphic changes that occur.
Since any rock may be metamorphosed in one or several different ways, there are different kinds of metamorphic rocks.
When melted rocks are erupted to form extrusive rocks.
In many limestones it is easy to see the remains of small organisms without using the microscope.
Folding takes place when a force horizontal to the surface of the earth make rock strata bend.
Although intrusive rocks were always originally formed deep underground, they are now widely exposed because of earth movements and erosion processes.
The folding of rocks, after erosion has worked at the surface, originally makes the surface more uneven than it was before.
It is indeed, only through the removal of the products of weathering that fresh surfaces are exposed to the further action of weathering processes.
Nearly all the great mountains of the world have been formed by the folding of layers of the earth’s crust.
Limestone is quantitatively much less important than shale and sandstone among sedimentary rocks of the world, but it is the chief non-clastic type. Kinds of limestone, graded on the basis of composition and texture, are almost without number, and each represents somewhat different conditions of making.
There are very few areas in the British Isles which have not been disturbed in some way or another by human activities.
Rocks are constantly subjected to a wide range of chemical and metamorphic changes, all of which affect their strength.
In many regions the earth’s surface has been disturbed by folding more than once along the same axes.
If magma when forcing its way upward has sufficient heat and pressure it reaches the surface to become an extrusive igneous rock.
With progressing regional metamorphism, the constituent rock minerals often grow more coarse-grained.
Chemically formed rocks are those derived when mineral matter that has been in solution becomes insoluble and is precipitated.
The great piles of sediments are the inevitable result of long continued operation of the slow process we observe today.
Rocks are aggregates of minerals. The wide variations in appearance and physical properties they exhibit depend on the amounts and kinds of different minerals they contain, and on how the grains of these minerals are arranged.
Sometimes thick piles of layers can be overturned by rapid vibrations such as those that result from earthquake.

Ex.14. Give the terms to the following definitions.

Any mass or aggregate of one or more kinds of mineral or organic matter, forming the solid crust of the earth.
A sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand grains cemented together in varying degrees.
Rocks formed by solidification of molten matter within the earth’s crust.
Fine-grained igneous rocks formed at the surface of the earth.
Rocks formed by consolidation of sediments.
The size and shape of rock constituent particles.
A rock which pores are connected.
Rocks derived from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical, and structural alterations due to high pressure and heat.
Agents of metamorphism.
A hard crystalline metamorphic form of limestone, typically white, which may be polished and is used in sculpture and architecture.

Ex.15.Arrange the words given below into three columns:

IgneousSedimentaryMetamorphic

Cemented, fine-grained, loose, hard, stratified, crystalline, altered, permeable, coarse-grained, unconsolidated, porous, impermeable, layered, glassy, metamorphosed, foliated, deep-seated, dense.

Ex.16.Open the brackets choosing the proper English word.

Rocks are a naturally occurring solid (mixture, aggregate) of minerals and, sometimes, organic materials. Rocks are classified by mineral and chemical (composition, structure), the texture of the (constituent, consisting) particles and also by the processes that formed them.

Rocks can be (arranged, classified) into three main groups which are igneous rock, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These three main groups of rocks are classified by geologists on the basis of their mode of (occurrence, origin).

Igneous rock (derives, originates) from the cooling and (solidification, cementation) of molten rock. Igneous rocks are formed either underground or above ground. Underground the (molten, solidified) rock is called magma. As the magma cools slowly it becomes (intrusive, extrusive) igneous rocks. On the other hand, igneous rocks are also formed when volcanoes (erupt, expose), causing the magma to (rise, raise) (upward, downward) to the surface. Magma above the earth is called (fluid, lava). (Intrusive, extrusive) igneous rocks are formed as the lava cools above the ground.