2004-009: Draft Annex to ISPM 27:2006 – Erwinia amylovora (Burrill) / 2004-009
[1] / Draft Annex to ISPM27:2006 – Erwinia amylovora (Burrill) (2004-009)
[2] / Status box
This is not an official part of the standard and it will be modified after adoption
Date of this document / 2014-06-23
Document category / Draft new annex to ISPM27:2006 (Diagnostic protocols for regulated pests)
Current document stage / From the editor (prior to SC for approval for MC)
Origin / Work programme topic: Bacteria, CPM-1 (2006)
Original subject: Erwinia amylovora (2004-009)
Major stages / 2012-11 First draft presented to TPDP (meeting)
2013-06 Draft presented to the TPDP (meeting)
2014-05: SC approved for member consultation (2014_eSC_May_08)
Consultation on technical level / The first draft of this protocol was written by Maria M. López (Bacterología, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias, IVIA, Moncada, Spain), Rodney Roberts (Tree Fruit Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Wenatchee, USA) and Robert Taylor (Plant Health and Environment Laboratory, Ministry for Primary Industries, Auckland, New Zealand).
The following experts also contributed to the preparation of the draft: J. Peñalver, M.T. Gorris, P. Llop, M. Cambra (Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias, IVIA, Centro de Protección Vegetal y Biotecnología, Moncada, Spain).
The protocol was subjected to expert review by the following international experts: Solke de Boer (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada); Klaus Geider (Julius Kuhn Insitut, Dossenheim, Germany): Won-Sik Kim (Norgen Biotek Corp., Ontario, Canada); Larry Pusey (USDA-ARS, Wenatchee, WA, USA); Virginia Stockwell (Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA); Robert Taylor (Plant Health and Environment Laboratory, MAF Biosecurity, Auckland, New Zealand); Annette Wensing (Julius Kuhn Institut, Dossenheim, Germany).
Some techniques described were ring tested in the DIAGPRO project financed by the EU. The participants in the 2003 ring test for evaluating the E.amylovora detection techniques were laboratories from the Netherlands (1), Austria (1), Norway (1), Spain (3), UK (1), Portugal (1), France (1), and Belgium (1). The results were published in Acta Horticulturae (López etal., 2006) and form the basis of the EPPO protocol (EPPO/OEPP. 2004. Diagnostic protocols for regulated pests. Erwinia amylovora standards PM 7/20. Bulletin OEPP-EPPO Bulletin, 34; 159–171), revised in 2012. This revised version was written by the same authors with the cooperation of I. Navarro, A. Arilla and B. Álvarez. The techniques described were ring tested first in 2009 in the context of an EUPHRESCO project by five EU participants from Austria, Spain, Slovenia, France and Switzerland. The final report is available (www.euphresco.org/downloadFile.cfm?id=662 i.e. Dreo etal., 2009).
The new and more efficient techniques and protocols were then ring tested in 2010 by 14 laboratories from Austria (1), Spain (3), France (1), Morocco (2), the Netherlands (2), New Zealand (1), Russia (1), Slovenia (1), Serbia (1) and the USA (1) using healthy samples and healthy samples co-mixed with inoculum levels from 1 to 106 c.f.u./ml. The protocol for the ring test was agreed to by the participants beforehand and the summary of the results is also available (López etal., 2010).
Main discussion points during development of the diagnostic protocol / -
Notes / This is a draft document.
[3] / Adoption
[4] / This diagnostic protocol was adopted by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures in 20--.
[5] / Pest Information
[6] / Erwinia amylovora is the causal agent of fire blight disease, which affects most species of the subfamily Maloideae of the family Rosaceae (Spiraeoideae). It was the first bacterium described as the causal agent of a plant disease (Burrill, 1883). E.amylovora is considered to be native to North America and was first detected outside North America in New Zealand in 1920. Fire blight was reported in England in 1957 and since then the bacterium has been detected in most areas of Europe where susceptible hosts are cultivated. E.amylovora is now present in more than 40 countries. It has not been recorded in South America and most African and Asian countries (with the exception of countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea), and it has been eradicated in Australia after one report there (van der Zwet, 2004). It represents a threat to the pome fruit industry of all these countries (Bonn and van der Zwet, 2000). Details on geographic distribution can be found in the EPPO Plant Quarantine Data Retrieval System (EPPO, 2012).
The most important host plants from both economic and epidemiological viewpoints are in the genera Chaenomeles, Cotoneaster, Crataegus, Cydonia, Eriobotrya, Malus, Mespilus, Pyracantha, Pyrus, Sorbus and Stranvaesia (Bradbury, 1986). The E.amylovora strains isolated from Rubus sp. in the United States is distinct from the strains on other hosts (Powney etal., 2011b; Starr etal., 1951).
Fire blight is probably the most serious bacterial disease affecting Pyrus communis (pear) and Malus domestica (apple) cultivars in many countries. Epidemics are sporadic and are dependent on a number of factors, including favourable environmental conditions, sufficient inoculum level present in the orchard, and host susceptibility. The development of fire blight symptoms follows the seasonal growth development of the host plant. The disease begins in spring with the production of the primary inoculum from bacteria overwintering in cankers (Thomson, 2000) causing blossom infection, continuing into summer with shoot and fruit infection, and ending in winter with the development of cankers throughout the dormant period of the host (Thomson, 2000; van der Zwet and Beer, 1995).
[7] / Taxonomic Information
[8] / Name: Erwinia amylovora (Burrill 1882) Winslow etal., 1920
Synonyms: Micrococcus amylovorus Burrill 1882
Bacillus amylovorus (Burrill) Trevisan 1889
“Bacterium amylovorus” [sic] (Burrill 1882) Chester 1897
Erwinia amylovora f.sp. rubi Starr, Cardona and Falson (Starr etal., 1951)
Taxonomic position: Proteobacteria, Y subdivision, Enterobacteriales, Enterobacteriaceae
Common names: Fire blight (EPPO, 2013)
[9] / Detection
[10] / Diagnosis of fire blight can be achieved using isolation and serological and molecular tests. The assays indicated below are recommended after having been evaluated in one or more of the following ring tests: in 2003 in a Diagnostic Protocols for Organisms Harmful to Plants (DIAGPRO) project involving ten laboratories (López etal., 2006); in 2009 in a European Phytosanitary Research Coordination (EUPHRESCO) project involving five laboratories (Dreo etal., 2009); and in 2010 by fourteen laboratories worldwide (López etal., 2010). The tests indicated in Figures1 and 2 are the minimum requirements for the diagnosis, but further tests may be required by the national plant protection organization (NPPO), especially for the first report in a country. For example, serological methods may facilitate a presumptive diagnosis of symptomatic plant material; however, an additional test based on a different biological principle should be used for detection. In all tests, positive and negative controls must be included.
The use of products of commercial brands in this diagnostic protocol implies no approval of them to the exclusion of others that may also be suitable. This information is given for the convenience of users of this protocol and does not constitute an endorsement by the CPM of the chemical, reagent and/or equipment named. Equivalent products may be used if they can be shown to lead to the same results.
[11] / 3.1 Detection in plants with symptoms
[12] / 3.1.1 Symptoms
[13] / Symptoms of fire blight on the most common hosts such as P.communis (pear), M.domestica, (apple), Cydonia spp. (quince), Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), Cotoneaster spp. (cotoneaster), Pyracantha spp. (pyracantha) and Crataegus spp. (hawthorn) are similar and easily recognized. The name of the disease is descriptive of its major characteristic: the brownish, necrotic appearance of twigs, flowers and leaves, as though they had been burned by fire. The typical symptoms are the brown to black colour of leaves on affected branches, the production of exudates, and the characteristic “shepherd’s crook” of terminal shoots. Depending on the affected plant part, the disease produces blossom blight, shoot/twig blight, leaf blight, fruit blight, limb/trunk blight or collar/rootstock blight (van der Zwet and Beer, 1995; van der Zwet and Keil, 1979).
In apple and pear trees the first symptoms usually appear in early spring when average temperatures rise above 15°C, during humid weather. Infected blossoms become soaked with water, then wilt, shrivel, and turn orange or brown to black. Peduncles may also appear water-soaked, become dark green and finally brown or black, sometimes oozing droplets of sticky bacterial exudate. Infected leaves wilt and shrivel, and entire spurs turn brown in apples and dark brown to black in pears, but remain attached to the tree for some time. Upon infection young fruitlets turn brown but also remain attached to the tree. Immature fruit lesions appear oily or water-soaked, becoming brown to black and often exuding droplets of bacterial ooze. Characteristic reddish-brown streaks are often found in the subcortical tissues when the bark is peeled from infected limbs or twigs (Thomson, 2000; van der Zwet and Keil, 1979). Brown to black slightly depressed cankers form in the bark of twigs, branches or the trunk of infected trees. These cankers later become defined by cracks near the margin of diseased and healthy tissue (Thomson, 2000).
Confusion may occur between fire blight and blight- or blast-like symptoms – especially in blossoms and buds – caused by other pathogenic bacteria and fungi, insect damage or physiological disorders. Other bacteria that cause fire blight-like symptoms include Erwinia pyrifoliae, the causal agent of bacterial shoot blight of Pyrus pyrifolia (Asian pear) (Kim etal., 1999); Erwinia piriflorinigrans, isolated from necrotic pear blossoms in Spain (López etal., 2011); Erwinia uzenensis, recently described in Japan (Matsuura etal., 2012); other Erwinia spp. reported in Japan that cause bacterial shoot blight (Kim etal., 2001a, 2001b; Palacio-Bielsa etal., 2012; Tanii etal., 1981); and Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, the causal agent of blossom blast. A definitive diagnosis of fire blight should always be obtained through laboratory analysis.
[14] / 3.1.2 Sampling and sample preparation
[15] / Plant material should be analysed as soon as possible after collection, but may be stored at 4–8ºC for up to two weeks until processing. Precautions to avoid cross-contamination should be taken when collecting samples, during transport and processing, and especially while isolating the bacterium or extracting DNA.
The samples should be processed with a general procedure valid for isolation, serological tests and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis, before or after enrichment. The use of freshly prepared antioxidant maceration buffer (polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-10, 20g; mannitol, 10g; ascorbic acid, 1.76g; reduced glutathione, 3g; phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), 10mM, 1litre; pH7.2; sterilized by filtration) is required for successful enrichment, as indicated by Gorris etal. (1996). The samples can be processed also in PBS, pH7.2 (NaCl, 8g; KCl, 0.2g; Na2HPO4·12H2O, 2.9g; KH2PO4, 0.2g; distilled water, 1litre) for direct isolation, immunofluorescence (IF) or PCR.
Plant parts (flowers, shoots, twigs, leaves or fruit) showing the most typical symptoms, and with bacterial exudate if possible, are carefully selected. Material for processing is selected from the leading edge of disease lesions. The plant tissue is cut into pieces of approximately 0.1–1.0g, lightly crushed in antioxidant maceration buffer (described in the previous paragraph) at 1:50 (w/v), left to stand for at least 5min, and placed on ice for a few minutes. Triplicate samples (1ml each) of each macerate are transferred to sterile micro centrifuge tubes, with one tube stored at –20ºC for subsequent analysis by PCR and another tube's contents adjusted to 30% glycerol and stored at –80ºC for confirmation testing, if necessary. The third tube is kept on ice for performing enrichment before enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or PCR, and isolation on selective media (Figure1). If IF is to be performed (i.e. IF analysis is optional), the slides are prepared and fixed on the same day that the samples are macerated. The PCR analysis should be performed as soon as is convenient, using the macerated sample stored at –20ºC.
[16] / 3.1.3 Isolation
[17] / 3.1.3.1 Isolation from symptomatic samples
[18] / When symptoms are very advanced or the environmental conditions after infection are not favourable for bacterial multiplication, the number of culturable E.amylovora cells can be very low. Isolation under these conditions can result in plates with few cells of the pathogen and that can be overcrowded with saprophytic and antagonistic bacteria. If this is suspected, the sample should be re-tested and/or enriched before isolation. The induction of the reversible and viable but non-culturable state has been described for E.amylovora in vitro using copper treatments and in fruits (Ordax etal., 2009), and it can be the cause of false negative isolation results.
In general, plating on three media is advised for maximum likelihood of recovery of E.amylovora, especially when samples are not in good condition. Depending on the number and microbial composition of the sample, each medium can be more or less efficient. Three media (CCT, King’s B and Levan) have been validated in two ring tests, with Levan having the highest plating efficiency.
[19] / ·  CCT medium is prepared in two parts. Part 1: sucrose, 100g; sorbitol, 10g; Niaproof, 1.2ml; crystal violet, 2ml (solvent 0.1% ethanol); nutrient agar, 23g; distilled water, 1litre; pH 7.0–7.2; sterilized by autoclaving at 115ºC for 10min. The autoclaved medium is cooled to approximately 45ºC. Part 2: thallium nitrate, 2ml (1% w/v aqueous solution); cycloheximide, 0.05g; the thallium nitrate and cycloheximide solution should be sterilized by filtration. Part 2 is added to 1litre sterile Part 1 mixture (Ishimaru and Klos, 1984).
[20] / ·  King’s B medium consists of: proteose peptone no.3, 20g; glycerol, 10ml; K2HPO4, 1.5g; MgSO4.7H2O, 1.5g; agar, 15g; distilled water, 1litre; pH 7.0–7.2; sterilized by autoclaving at 120ºC for 20min (King etal., 1954).
[21] / ·  Levan medium consists of: yeast extract, 2g; bactopeptone, 5g; NaCl, 5g; sucrose, 50g; agar, 20g; distilled water, 1litre; pH 7.0–7.2; sterilized by autoclaving at 120ºC for 20min.
[22] / Cycloheximide is added at 0.05g/litre to King’s B and Levan media when fungi are expected in the isolations. Dilutions of 1:10 and 1:100 of each macerate are prepared in PBS (NaCl, 8g; KCl, 0.2g; Na2HPO4·12H2O, 2.9g; KH2PO4, 0.2g; distilled water, 1litre).
Preferably 100µl of the macerates and their dilutions are spread, by triple streaking in 130mm plates or fifty microliters spread in standard 90mm Petri dishes. Plates are incubated at 25ºC for up to 4days. The final reading is usually taken at 72h. Colonies of E.amylovora on CCT medium are pale violet, circular, high convex to domed, smooth and mucoid and they grow more slowly than on King’s B or Levan media. Colonies on King´s B medium are creamy white, circular and non-fluorescent under ultraviolet (UV) light at 366nm. Colonies on Levan medium are white, circular,, domed, smooth and mucoid. Levan-negative colonies of E.amylovora have been reported (Bereswill etal., 1997).