Egypt Under Nasser

1

1952-1970

EGYPT UNDER NASSER

or

NASSERISM

Now we are going to look at Nasser’s domestic policy and his foreign policy.

Nasser became so famous for what he did that his policies were given a name called ‘Nasserism’

1952-1956

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL REFORMS OF RCC

1952: the Agrarian Reform Law (September): This led to a huge redistribution of land. It stated that the most land any individual could own was 200 feddans.

As we have seen earlier, 6% of the population owned 70% of the land) 0.4% of population owned 35% of cultivable land. The average size of a portion of land was 170 fedans. 94% owned only 0/8 feddan. Small proprietors going into debt and ended up selling their land.

The aim was to share out the land more equally and take from those who had lots of land and give it to those who had very little.

The surplus land that this created was then taken by state for redistribution to those who owned less than 5 feddans.

The landlords from whom this surplus land was taken were to be compensated in government bonds. Royal lands were also included in this and theywere also redistributed.

The new government was not communist, but this was a policy that many socialists would have applauded.

SOCIAL REFORM

Other laws abolished all civil titles (Pasha, bey).

This is another policy that socialists would have applauded. The idea behind it to get rid of all the social hierarchies which were associated with the privilege and corruption and social injustices of the previous regimes in Egypt.

ARAB SOCIALISM

Nasser took these socialist policies even further.

As said above, Nasser and the Free Officers were no Communists.

An example of their adherence to a capitalistic economic system is the fact that in their early years they had offered incentives to foreign and local private investors.

The problem was that Egypt was not attractive for foreign investors.

But after break up of UAR (the Federation of Egypt and Syria) in 1961 they said that they needed to adopt elements of socialism. They called it Arab Socialism.

As there were problems getting foreign investment they decided to take over everything themselves. They called it State Capitalism (not Marxist socialism based on class conflict)

1961-64 Everything nationalised, including the press.

1960 First 5 year Plan. Increase in textile food and beverages production.

CRITICISM:

The large scale steel plants like ar Helwan were only moderately successful.

Like most centrally planned things, it lacked quality control, too many managers etc.

Land reclamation schemes were not that successful either.

However, the Aswam dam reclaimed 650,000 feddans. It can be said to have been a very successful project. However, now we realised that the ecological cost was also great.

One big problem Nasser’s government faced was the population increase. It was rising at about 2.5% per year. In 1960 it was 25 million. By 1980 it was 40 million. At that point Egypt became a net importer of foodstuffs. Moreover, for every feddan of desert reclaimed, one was lost by urban expansion.

Their nationalisation programmes involved taking responsibility for all businesses, meant officers were in charge – and not all were trained to do the job.

Nasser’s egalitarianism:

1961 : the number of feddans allowed per family was reduced to 100.

1969: this was reduced to 50 feddans.

1952 Agrarian Reform Law affected only 12% of cultivated land (and gave land to only 9% of the rural population) there was a significant redistribution of wealth.

By 1964: 55% of cultivated area is small farms (5 feddans or less), and 33% medium farms (5-50 feddans). 12% was 50-100 feddans.

All of this was achieved without major disruptions.

So, unless you are a very rich family who feels grieved that the government have taken so much of your land off you, this was a good thing. All the better for being carried out without all the social disruption (violence, killings) one saw, for example, in China.

After 1961 the maximum individual salary was limited to £E5,000. Any person who earned over £E10,000 was taxed a t90%.

Lower paid workers given pensions health care etc…

1962:Nasser presents all these things as part of the Charter for National Action.

However, by talking of exporting this revolution he alienated himself from Arab monarchs.

Nasser wanted to form an ASU - Arab Socialist Union - to export this revolution to other Arab countries.

It was used to mobilise mass opinion in Egypt. Like single parties everywhere, Nasser’s became cumbersome and came to be resented.

1964 new constitution proclaimed.

It said 50% of delegates to Assembly must be peasants and workers. But Nasser was still in control.

1965: a plebiscite reconfirmed all of this.

Some call his system “soft-hearted authoritarianism”.

It had a secret police, but was not as brutal as Iran.

Egyptians believed he had their interests at heart.

Egalitarianism also with regard to women.

Right to vote; women workers;

Enrolment in education doubled from 1953 to 1970.

However, there were overcrowded classrooms, and in 1969 still 60% adults were illiterate.

He abolished tuition fees, and promised every student a job.

He hoped to increase number of scientists and technicians.

When they could not get the jobs they wanted it raised discontent.

Unlike Ataturk, Nasser did not try to reduce role of Islam in society. He tried to bring it under control of state and use it in service of revolution. An example of this is his reorganisation of al-AzharUniversity.

ASSESSING NASSER

If asked to ‘Assess’ Nasser’s rule, or ‘Nasserism (in other words, argue about what was good, what was bad, etc), then what follows should help you do that:

It relates to the so called ‘Progressive reforms’ he introduced. In other words, the things he did to Egypt that tried to modernise Egypt, to bring it out of the feudal age and to introduce it to modern things like a modern economy, modern democratic politics, modern social relations. All these things made up the political, social and economic aspects of his domestic policy and was the domestic aspect of Nasserism.

When you write about it, you have to give some concrete details, with dates, figures, and analytical comment (success, relative success, failure, good, bad, etc).

Between 1952 and 1970, Nasser accomplished a number of things.

On the whole, one usually speak of Nasserism as consisting of :

In general terms, they are:

ECONOMICS: His use of industrialisation to promote social change,

ECONOMICS: From 1960 onwards, his use of nationalisation, for example the nationalisation of the Suez Canal and other industries,

SOCIAL: his references to Arab Socialism,

POLITICS: His establishment of a one party-state.

POLITICS: He achieved political Independence – the Egyptians had struggled for a long time to get the British out.

(Remember the Treaty of 1936 which meant GB still controlled Egyptian foreign policy.)

2. No traces of imperial past in his politics. Getting rid of all imperial control was a popular thing.

ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL REFORMS

Despite its reforms, by 1956 the new regime seemed to have stalled (run out of new ideas). It is often said that it was Nasser’s foreign policy that gave him a fresh impetus and eventually made Nasser head of the Arab world.

Egalitaraianism also with regard to women. Right to vote; women workers; ALL GOOD STUFF.

Enrolment in education doubled from 1953 to 1970. GOOD

However, overcrowded classrooms (and later overcrowded universities, with increasing unemployed graduates and discontent. Moreover in 1969 still 60% adults were illiterate. BAD

State-run industries inefficient; educational establishments overcrowded. But he did set in action national transformation and independence.

Helwan steel industry (part of 1960 5 year plan) only moderately successful. Aswam dam recovered 650,000 feddans. GOOD

But an ecological disaster. Plus the growing cities used up valuable fertile land. And the growing population means they have to start importing food. BAD

State industries not that efficient and management top-heavy.

After 1967, he moved away from ‘Nasserism’ (both in domestic and foreign policy sense – but especially foreign policy).

NASSER’S FOREIGN POLICY

The main feature of his foreign policy was how he avoided being trapped in the Baghdad Pact and the Eisenhower Doctrine. He made Egypt part of the non-aligned movement.

In assessing these things, you have to say what you think worked and what did not work, what was good and what was bad, what Nasser can be credited with and what not.

NARRATIVE OF HIS FOREIGN POLICY

GB/US/USSR

Old Egypt wanted to rule the Sudan. GB worried about Suez Canal. So Sudan often came between them.
RCC did not. Claimed independence for the Sudan.

1953 Anglo-Egyptian agreement promotes Sudan’s self-determination.

By 1955 Sudanese parliament declared independence.

So this was one diplomatic way in which Nasser got rid of conflict with the old imperial power of the British. He then went further in this with the 1954 treaty with the British.

1954: treaty. GB agree to evacuate all GB troops within 20 months. They agree that the Brits can come back if any outside power or Turkey attacks Suez Canal.

1956 April : GB forces withdrawn.

1954-55 The US were promoting the Baghdad Pact (This was basically the containment in Middle East) Nasser refused to sign. He saw it as a sort of imperialism. Nasser won over Jordan and Syria.

This distanced him from Western Alliance. But he needed the sort of aid US was dishing out. Especially given the Israeli attacks on Palestinians and Egyptians borders.

But the West refused him arms.

So, in 1955 September: agrees to exchange Egyptian cotton fro $200 million of Soviet arms from Czechoslovakia. = Czech Arms deal.

(this makes him seem anti-imperial of US and GB, plus doing something about 1948 ‘disaster’.)

He was also in need of money to finance his agricultural development.

(2nd dam across the Nile as Aswam) needed $1 billion.

World Bank said okay, but US and GB placed restrictions on it. Then US withdrew its offer in July 1956.

It was in reaction to this that

1956 july 26 Nasser nationalises the Suez Canal. Say the revenues will fund the project.

GB, France and Israel agree joint military action.

1956 October 29: Israel strikes Sinai.

October 31 GB airforce bombs Cairo

November 5 GB and French troops advancing along Canal

November 6 agree to UN sponsored cease-fire.

US and USSR issued threats to GB and France and Israel.

This became a political triumph for Nasser.

ARAB WORLD

The United Arab Republic.

See Ch 16 for impact of Nasserism on other Arab states.

Nasser was into Arabism (more than Egypt’s Greek and Pharaoic inheritence) and Pan-Arabism.

Most commentators say that this foreign policy aim meant he ended up neglecting domestic policy.

1958 UAR created. Union of Syria and Egypt into one state. (Syrians were worried about the rise of Communism there)

Nasser simply imposed Egyptian style rule on Syria. Often replacing Syrians with Egyptians. This alienated many powerful elements in Syrians society.

1961 the Syrian military rebelled and ended the UAR.

Blow to Nasser’s prestige.

Post 1961: domestic reforms.

However

1962 Egypt particpate in Yemen civil War on rebel’s side. (republicans)

The old ruler Imam Muhammad al-Badr won support of Kings of Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

So leader of new military regime turns to Nasser.

1965 70,000 Egyptian troops involved. Heavy losses.

In this way Egypt divided Arab loyalties.

Radio Cairo was pro Pan –Arab movement.

As was the Egyptian film industry. Egypt also had most popular singer, Umm Kalthum.

USSR and US

Egyptian Soviet ties tightened after 1956.
1958 Soviets fund Aswam Dam and provide military assistance

Okay, there were ideological differences , but USSR got some sort of centre of influence in the Middle East.
By 1957 the Eisenhower Doctrine was in place – promising economic and military assistance to countries resisting communism. For Nasser this was like the Baghdad Pact.

Having said that he tried to stay friendly with US. Negotiated permission to buy wheat with Egyptian currency.

But he refused to commit to Western alliance, always accepted Soviet military aid.

US had an unwavering support of Israel at this time when Nasser was the champion of the Arab world.

But in 1967, to renew his image, he tried to take on Israel, and lost.

After 1967, he moved away from ‘Nasserism’.

He allowed the Soviet to dominate the Egyptian military.

He dropped the quest for Arab unity.

He even worked with the King Husayn of Jordan (whom he has so often attacked in earlier years)

He accepted UN resolution 242 and the Rogers Plan – which showed he was prepared to accommodate Israel. (Israeli victory of 1948 and Israeli attack on Egypt in 1956 still lived in minds of Egyptians and Arabs) Yet so much of Nasserism had been identified with the liberation of Palestine from its Zionist occupiers. Israelis had come to be seen by Arabs as part of Western Imperialism.

THE 6 DAY WAR. JUNE 1967

His brinkmanship led him to deploy troops in Sinai to protect Syria. Then he asked UN to withdraw their troops – which they did to his surprise. Nasser then announces a blockade on Israel ship passing the Straits of Tiran.

(Nasser was bluffing. Most of his army was tied up in Yemen. He was hoping for Soviet-US intervention).

In light of this build up of Arab forces, Israeli’s attacked on June 5th 1967 and destroyed the Egyptian air force in a single day! Took out all the other Arab forces. By June 11th it was over. 6 day war. Israel won everything. Egypt lost 12,000 men and 80% of its air force and armor.

The defeat deprived Egypt of the revenues from the Sinai oil fields and the Suez Canal (closed from 1967-1975)

Egypt then had to accept subsidies from the monarchies of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.

Refugee problem from cities along the canal zone.

Post-defeat investigations revealed corruption and mismanagement in Egyptian army.

Just like 1948 tarnished old regimes, so 1967 tarnished all the military regimes that came to power in the 1950s.

Nasser remaine din control, but there were purges, attempted takeovers, suicide of Amr. Egyptaisn allowed Soviets to rebuild their military.

In 1969 Nasser launched what he called a ‘war of attrition’ along the Suez Canal. Israel just bombed the Suez canal cities.

1967 UN Resolution 242: “the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war” (required withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territories) but it failed to provide a consensual basis for peace.

Always try to quote the historian Batatu who said “progressive ideological verbiage is not enough”.

1970 July 90 day cease fire (organised by William Rogers of US) The Rogers Plan.

1970 September: Clashes between Palestinians and Jordanian army leads Nasser topersonally mediate the crisis. Conference organised in Cairo.

But the next day, September 28thNasser died of a heart attack.

ASSESSMENT OF HIS FOREIGN POLICY

AS you will see, there are good things and bad things to be said about his foreign policy. Most of the criticism is about 1967 onwards.

Asserts Egyptain independence in the face of both British and US imperialism (1954 treaty with Brits – who withdraw troops in April 1956). On top of that he remained aloof from the Baghdad Pact (US containment policy). Okay, this meant that the West refused him arms. But his solution was to simply turn to the Communist bloc for aid (famous Czech arms deal of 1955 = in 1955 September: He agrees to exchange Egyptian cotton for $200 million of Soviet arms from Czechoslovakia). And he did this without committing himself to Communism.

His biggest success was the nationalisation of Suez Canal.

He needed $1 billion to finance his agricultural development.

(2nd dam across the Nile as Aswam). World Bank said okay, but US and GB placed restrictions on it. Then US withdrew its offer in July 1956. SO he nationalised the canal. And though he was attacked by GB, France and Israel, the US eventually told the three of them to pull out.

What is impressive is the way in which he managed to steer a middle line between the USSR and the US. USSR help finance his military. And though he resisted the Baghdad Pact and the Eisenhower Doctrine, he managed to get the US to allow him to pay for wheat using Egyptian money.

e.g.

1958 Soviets fund Aswam Dam and provide military assistance

Okay, there were ideological differences , but USSR got some sort of centre of influence in the Middle East.
By 1957 the Eisenhower Doctrine was in place – promising economic and military assistance to countries resisting communism. For Nasser this was like the Baghdad Pact.

Having said that he tried to stay friendly with US. Negotiated permission to buy wheat with Egyptian currency.

His involvement in Yemen got him into a bit of trouble.

1962 Egypt particpate in Yemen civil War on rebel’s side. (republicans). The old ruler Imam Muhammad al-Badr won support of Kings of Jordan and Saudi Arabia.