UNIT 12
GRAMMAR
Modal verbs.
- Modal verbs of probability, present and future.
The main modal verbs that express probability are described here in order of certainty. Will is the most certain, and might/could are the least certain.
1)Will.
a)Will and won’t are used to predict a future action. The truth or certainty of what is asserted is more or less taken for granted.
e.g. His latest book willbe out next month.
b) Will and won’t are also used to express what we believe or guess to be true about the present. They indicate an assumption based on our knowledge of people and things, their routines, character and qualities.
e.g. Leave the meat in the oven. It won’tbe cooked yet.
It’s Monday morning, so I guess right now Sarah will be taking the children to school.
2)Must and can’t.
a)Must is used to assert what we infer or conclude to be the most logical or rational interpretation of the situation. We do not have all the facts, so it is less certain than will. Must in this meaning is not used to speak about the future.
e.g. You say he walked across the SaharaDesert! He must be mad!
You must be joking! I simply don’t believe you!
b)The negative of this use is can’t.
e.g. She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter! She’s only twenty-one herself!
3)Should.
a) Should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. Expectation means believing that things are or will be as we want them to be. This use of should has the idea of if everything has gone according to plan.
e.g. Our guests should be here soon (if they haven’t got lost).
This homework shouldn’t take you too long (if you’ve understood what you have to do).
We should be moving into our new house soon (as long as nothing goes wrong).
b) Should in this use has the idea that we want the action to happen. It is not used to express negative or unpleasant ideas.
e.g. You should pass the exam. You’ve worked hard (NOT You should fail the exam).
4) May, might and could.
a) May expresses the possibility that an event will happen or is happening.
e.g. We may go to Greece this year. We haven’t decided yet.
“Where’s Ann?” “She may be having a bath, I don’t know”.
b) Might and could are slightly more tentative and slightly less certain than may.
e.g. It might rain. Take your umbrella.
You could be right. I’m not sure.
c)Couldn’t is not used to express a future possibility. The negative of could in this use is might not.
e.g. You might not be right.
d) Couldn’t has a similar meaning to can’t above, only slightly weaker.
e.g. She couldn’t have a ten-year-old daughter! She’s only twenty-one herself!
- Modal verbs of probability in the past.
All the modal verbs above can be used with the perfect infinitive to speak about probability in the past. They express the same varying degrees of certainty. Again, will have done is the most certain, and might/ could have done is the least certain.
e.g. “I met a tall girl at your party. Very attractive.” “That’llhave been my sister, Patsy.”
It must have been a good party. Everyone stayed till dawn.
The music can’t have been any good. Nobody danced.
Where’s Pete? He should’ve been here ages ago.
He may have got lost.
He might have decided not to come.
He could have had an accident.
- Other uses of modal verbs.
1)Obligation and advice.
a)Must expresses strong obligation. Other verb forms are provided by have to.
e.g. You must try harder.
You’ll have to do this exercise again.
I hate having to get up early.
b)Must expresses the opinion of the speaker.
e.g. I must get my hair cut.
You must do this again. (Teacher to student)
Have to expresses a general obligation based on a law or rule, or based on the authority of another person.
e.g. Children have to go to school until they’re sixteen.
Mum says you have to tidy you room.
c)Mustn’t expresses negative obligation. Don’t have to expresses the absence of obligation.
e.g. You mustn’tsteal. It’s very naughty.
You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English.
d)Should and ought to express mild obligation or advice. Should is much more common. Ought to is not used in questions.
e.g. You should go to bed. You look very tired.
You ought to take things easier.
e)Should (ought to) + the perfect infinitive is used to refer to a desirable action in the past that didn’t happen.
e.g. You should’ve listened to my advice. I was right all the time.
Shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) + the perfect infinitive is used to refer to an undesirable action in the past that did happen.
e.g. You shouldn’t have told him he was a loser. It was callous.
f)Need is a modal verb, with no 3rd person form. It is used mainly in questions and negatives. The meaning is similar to have to.
e.g. Need you ask? The Prime Minister need not worry.
Need tois a normal verb.
e.g. Sarah needs to be more careful. You don't need to worry. Do I need to fill in this form?
g) Didn't need todescribes a past situation, where something was not necessary, so it was not done.
e.g. Kate looked after the children, so we didn't need to take them to the nursery.
Needn't have donedescribes a past situation, where something happened or was done, but it was not necessary.
e.g. I needn't have gone so early to the office. The meeting was cancelled.
2) Permission.
a) May, can and could are used to ask for permission.
e.g. May I use your phone?
Can/could I go home?
b)May is used to give permission, but it sounds very formal. Can and can’t are more common.
e.g. You can use a dictionary in this exam.
You can’t stay up till midnight.
c)To talk about permission generally, or permission in the past, we use can, could or be able to.
e.g. Children can (are allowed) to do what they want these days.
3) Ability.
a) Can expresses ability. The past is expressed by could. Other forms are provided by be able to.
e.g. I can speak three languages.
I could swim when I was three.
I’ve never been able to understand her.
b) To express a fulfilled ability on one particular occasion in the past, could is not used. Instead we use was able to or managed to.
e.g. She was able to survive by clinging onto the wrecked boat.
The prisoner managed to escape by climbing onto the roof.
c) Could + the perfect infinitive is used to speak about an unrealized past ability. Someone was able to do something in the past, but didn’t try to.
e.g. I could have gone to university, but I didn’t want to.
d) Could (and might) can be used to criticize people for not doing things.
e.g. You could (might) have helped me instead of just sitting there!
4) Request.
Several modal verbs express a request.
e.g. Can/could/will/would you help me?
5) Willingness and refusal.
a) Will expresses willingness. Won’t expresses a refusal by either people or things.
e.g. I’ll help you.
She says she won’t get up until she’s had breakfast in bed.
The car won’t start.
b) The past is expressed by wouldn’t.
e.g. My mum said she wouldn’t give me any more money.
I. Modal verbs of probability.
1. Choose the best continuation a to i for sentences 1 to 9.
1 You must have met some fascinating people
2You must know Tokyo is expensive
3You can't have lived in Tunisia for ten years
4You can't be tired
5You must be exhausted
6You may find it difficult to settle down
7You couldn't have gone on holiday
8You might think about going to Spain
9You could take a taxi
a after all your hard work.
bafter touring the world for years.
сif you've lived there.
dduring your trip to Africa.
ewhen you've just had a holiday.
fwithout learning some Arabic.
gto the airport tomorrow.
hbecause you had a broken leg.
ifor your next holiday.
2. Choose the best continuation a to j for sentences 1 to 10.
1I'm still waiting for the money the bank is supposed to have sent me.
2There's still no sign of Alex.
3It's getting rather late to deal with this now.
4I wish you wouldn't leave your bag near the door like that.
5You'd better take your umbrella with you.
6This piece is the right shape, but it doesn't fit.
7There should be a filling station here.
8It's a very long book.
9Oh sorry, yes, these are your keys.
10 Leave yourself plenty of time for the journey.
- You're bound to need it if you don't.
- Surely you can't have finished it already!
- It should have got here by now.
- It can take quite a long time in the rush hour.
- It can't be the right one after all.
- That's strange! I can't see one anywhere!
- You could always come back tomorrow.
- He may have missed the train I suppose.
- I must have picked them up by mistake.
- Someone could easily fall over it and hurt themselves.
3. Choose the correct alternative.
1You must be / can't be very proud of your son winning so many prizes.
2We thought our cousins would visit us when they were in town last week, but they didn't even phone. I suppose they must be / must have been too busy.
3The film's been such a big success. I guess it must be / can't be easy to get tickets to see it.
4I'm sure you could mend this if you really tried. You must be using / can't be using the right tools.
5I've just rung the garage to check whether they've fixed my car, but I can't get an answer. I suppose they may have / may be having a tea-break out in the yard.
6I don't know why you wanted to stay at that party. You might have enjoyed / can't have enjoyed talking to all those boring people.
7I can't go out this morning. We're getting a new sofa and the store may be delivering / must be delivering it today.
8Please check these figures again. They're not accurate. You might have been concentrating / can't have been concentrating when you added them up.
9You must be / must have been thirsty after carrying those heavy boxes. Shall I make some tea?
4. Choose the correct form. А, В or C, to complete the sentence.
1Why don't you phone Katie now? She … yet.
2Take some sun-block and wear a hat, as it… get very hot in the middle of the day.
3There's no point waiting here any longer. We … go and have something to eat.
4Lucky you managed to hang on to that tree. You…down the cliff.
5'What am I going to do about a present for Carol?' 'You … some flowers.'
6I don't know what time I'll be home. I … be quite late, I'm afraid.
7Don't worry about your driving test. You … to pass.
8There's no sign of the dog anywhere. Someone … it out.
9Why don't you ask Nick about it? He … know the answer, I suppose.
10There must be some kind of technical problem. The film … by now.
1A can't have leftВmust have leftСmight have left
2A mustВcanСcould have
3A can hardlyВare bound toСmight as well
4A could have fallenВmust have fallenСmay have fallen
5A might have sent her Вmust have sent herСcould always send her
6A mustВcanСmay
7A mayВmustСare bound to
8A is bound to have let Вmust have letСcan let
9A canВmay as wellСmight
10A should have started Вmust have startedСmight have started
5. Complete the email with the words below.
may be seeing may have left could be coming
may not have done couldn't have left may have found
could have fallen may be visiting
From: Robin Nicholas
To: Helena Shakespeare
Subject: Seeing you again
Helena
It was good to see you last week and to get your email yesterday.
Sorry to hear you lost your rap CD on the journey home. I've looked for it, but it definitely isn't in our car. I think you (1) it on the train. Why not phone the lost property office? It (2) down the side of your seat. Someone (3) it and handed it in. Of course, if they like rap music, they (4)! Anyway, as far as I remember, you (5) it here, because you were listening to it on the way to the station.
And now my news. Guess what? I (6) to your part of the world next month! There is a conference in your town which my boss wanted to attend, but now he's heard that some important clients (7) our office at that time.
So, we (8) each other sooner than we expected. Let's hope so. Of course it's not settled yet. I'll email as soon as I know for certain.
See you,
Robin
6. Complete the text using one of the phrases a-j in each gap.
a) can't have set off b) could easily be c) could expect d) must have been
e) can't have been f) could easily sail g) might have h) must have made
i) should have reached j) might involve
16th-century explorers
Imagine what it (1)like to have sailed around the world in a small wooden ship, as Drake and his men did in 1577-1580. On a ship only some 35 metres long, it (2) easy for the 80 or so crew to live comfortably. Exploration was part of war and rivalry with other nations, so these voyages (3) attacks on other ships and towns, and had to make a profit. There were all the usual dangers too. A ship (4) destroyed by a storm or run out of food and water, and the captain (5) little idea of where the ship was or where it was going. Explorers (6) many wrong decisions in an age when there were only basic maps and navigation equipment, and in unknown parts of ocean where a ship (7) for weeks without reaching land. Very often places they thought they (8) turned out to be much further on, or in a different direction. However, they (9) on such long voyages without some general idea of the places they (10) to reach along the way, and as knowledge of navigation improved, voyages became more and more successful.
7. Complete the answers with must, can't or might and any other words you need.
1. GERALD: Can that be James phoning at this hour? It's gone midnight!
HILDA: It…him. He said he'd phone if he passed his exam.
2. JIM: There's a light on in that office block. Do you think it's a thief?
HARRY: It…the cleaners. They always work at night.
3. ELINOR: Where did Adam get that new guitar? He hasn't got any money
KATE: It … a present. After all, it was his birthday last week.
4. NICKY: Why did Mina ignore me at the party last night?
RYAN: She …you. She wasn't wearing her glasses.
5. EMMA: Do you think Cindy told the boss I left work early yesterday?
NEIL: She's away this week, so she … him.
6. JILL: What's making me feel so ill?
PAT: It … ate. Did you have seafood last night? That sometimesmakes people ill.
8. Re-word the following sentences using can, mayor must.
- I don't think he did it all by himself.
- Perhaps, you're right.
- It is possible that they forgot it in the car.
- Is it really true?
- I don't believe he has been meaning to do it.
- It is impossible that he should have refused your request.
- Evidently he has not read the book.
- I'm certain that he has heard the gong.
- It was some special occasion, I'm sure.
- He looks wet and muddy. I'm sure he has been fishing.
- No doubt, she is out shopping.
- It's possible that he doesn't know we are here.
- Is it possible that he is giving a course on the Renaissance at the University?
- It is possible that the news is being broadcast on all the channels.
- I'm certain they didn't take notes of the meeting.
- Is it possible that we are out of wrapping paper?
- It is possible he will again forget to rule a margin down the left side.
- Then the firing began again. This time it was impossible for it to be more than a mile away.
- Let's give her a call again. It is possible that she was asleep and didn't hear the telephone.
- You have used up all the money I gave you, I suppose.
- I'm sure she's at home.
- I'm certain you're crazy.
- I know that isn't Janet - she's in America.
- I'm sure she thinks I'm stupid.
- I bet I look silly in this coat.
- They're always buying new cars - I'm certain they make a lot of money.
- I'm sure he's not a teacher - he's too well dressed.
- You're an architect? I'm sure that's an interesting job.
- I'm sure you're not serious. I know you're joking.
- I'm sure he's got another woman: he keeps coming home late.
9. Write a new sentence with the same meaning, beginning as shown.
1. Running is not allowed on the stairs. There is a danger of accidents.
Running is not allowed on the stairs. You ......
2. You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! I'm sure it's not safe.
You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! It......
3. I think I know how this window got broken. I'm sure someone kicked a ball against it.
I think I know how this window got broken. Someone......
4. Unless you follow instructions, it's possible for a gymnasium to be a dangerous place.
Unless you follow instructions, a gymnasium......
5. I've turned off the electricity. I'm sure it's safe to touch these wires now.