Chapter 14 Notes: Discovery & Crisis in the 16Th & 17Th Centuries

CHAPTER 14 NOTES: DISCOVERY & CRISIS IN THE 16TH & 17TH CENTURIES

1. An Age of Discovery and Expansion
2. The Motives
3. Europeans had long been attracted to lands outside of Europe
4. Although Muslim control of central Asia cut Europe off from the countries further east, the Mongol conquests in the 13th century had reopened the doors
5. Merchants, adventurers & government officials had high hopes of finding precious metals and new areas of trade, in particular, more direct sources for the Spices of the East
6. Religious Zeal “God, Glory, & Gold”
7. Europeans had achieved a level of wealth & technology that enabled them to make a regular series of voyages beyond Europe
8. Europeans had developed remarkably seaworthy ships as well as new navigational techniques
9. Growing knowledge of wind patterns spurred exploration
10. The Development of a Portuguese maritime Empire
11. Under Prince Henry the “Navigator,”Portugal began to explore the coast of Africa
12. In the 1440s, the Portuguese made some of their first profits from their maritime exploration and returning ships and from the sale of Africans slaves
13. In 1471, they discovered gold along the southern coast of the Western hump of Africa (Gold Coast)
14. Hearing reports of a route to India around the southern tip of Africa, Portuguese sea captains continued their probing
15. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope
16. Vasco da Gama, from 1497 to 1499, rounded the Cape of Good Hope; stopped at several East African ports controlled by Muslims; sailed across Arabian sea to Calicut, India; brought valuable spices such as ginger and cinnamon from India
17. In 1511, Portuguese captain Alfonso de Albuquerque sailed into the harbor of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula
18. Portuguese fleets returned annually to India, seeking to destroy Arab Muslim shipping and established monopolies in the Spice Trade
19. The development of a Portuguese maritime empire encompassing Malacca and the Malay Peninsula was achieved, in part, through ruthless attacks on all prior Arab settlers in the region including the murder and mutilation of male and female Islamic prisoners.
20. Portuguese were successful because of guns and seamanship.
21. Voyages to the New World
22. Spanish attempted to reach the Indies by sailing westward across the Atlantic
23. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
24. With 3 ships, the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria manned by 90 men, Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492 west across the Atlantic.
25. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the Bahamas and then went on to explore the coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of Hispaniola
26. told Spanish monarchs that gold and silver would be found there
27. believed he had reached Asia
28. because of their contact with Europeans, the native population of Hispaniola went from 100,000 to 300 in just 80 years following Columbus’ initial arrival
29. Although Columbus clung to his belief until his death, other explorers soon realized that he had discovered a new frontier altogether. (The Americas)
30. Other explorations
31. In 1497, Venetian John Cabot explored the New England coastline of the Americas under the backing of Henry VII of England
32. In 1500, Portuguese sailor Pedro Cabral discovered South America. (Accompanied by Vespucci)
33. In 1513, Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean
34. In 1519, Spaniard Ferdinand Magellan’s crew circumnavigated the world (Magellan was killed in the Philippines)
35. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the new world between Spanish and Portuguese
36. The Spanish Empire in the New World
37. Sanctioned by the Castilian crown, Spanish Conquistadors were successful at conquering large chunks of the Americas because:
38. superior weapons
39. organizational skills
40. determination
41. rivalries among native peoples
42. disease
43. Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) exemplified Spanish expansion and exploration of the New World by his defeat of the Aztecs in Mexico
44. Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) defeated Incas and established a Spanish colony in South America by 1535.
45. Administration of the Spanish Empire
46. Queen Isabella of Spain declared the natives of the New World to be the subjects of Castile and issued the encomienda
47. was designed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs
48. in reality, it allowed Spaniards to collect tribute from the natives and to enslave them
49. Forced labor, starvation, and diseases such as smallpox, measles, and typhus took a fearful toll on Native American populations (NO immunities to European diseases)
50. 30% to 40% of native populations died due to contact with Europeans
51. Spanish developed an administrative system based on viceroys
52. Catholic monarchs of Spain were given extensive rights over ecclesiastical affairs in the New World
53. Mass conversion of Native Americans by Dominican, Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries brought the organizational and institutional structures of the Roman Catholic Church to the New World
54. Impact of Expansion
55. Destroyed Native American cultures that came under European control to a large degree
56. Large influx of precious metals such as gold and silver to Europe from the New World
57. Introduction of new foods into Europe such as potatoes, coffee, corn, and tobacco
58. Introduction of horses, sheep, and wheat to the New World from Europe
59. Deepened rivalries among competing European countries
60. Politics and Wars of Religion in the 16th Century

A.The French Wars of Religion

1. Francis I (1515-1547) and Henry II (1547-1559) had been strong rulers in France who kept the internal peace and controlled the Church
2. After the accidental death of Henry II (jousting accident), he was succeeded by sons who were weak, feeble, and neurotic
3. Henry II’s widow, Catherine de’Medici acted as a regent and dominated French politics during her sons’ reigns; nicknamed “Madame Snake”
4. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism, French kings tried to stop its spread by persecuting Huguenots (French Calvinists)
5. The Huguenots
6. made up approximately 7% of the total French population
7. made up approximately 50% of the total French nobility
8. came from all levels of society, rich and poor a like
9. strong-willed and well organized
10. The sons of Henry II of the Valois dynasty were staunchly Roman Catholic
11. The Guise Family, a powerful French Catholic family that posed a threat even to the Catholic Valois family, spear-headed the anti-Huguenot movement in France
12. Religious issues were not the only factors that contributed to civil war in France:
13. Towns and provinces resented the power of the monarchy
14. The nobility, particularly the Huguenot nobility, also resented royal authority
15. Civil Wars temporarily halted the development of a centralized state in France
16. The wars erupted in 1562 when the powerful Duke of Guise orchestrated a massacre of thousands of Huguenot men, women, and children who were peacefully congregating in Vassy
17. Although outnumbered badly, the Huguenots were excellent at defensive warfare and proved difficult to conquer
18. A truce seemed to be reached between the Catholics and Huguenots when King Charles IX’s sister agreed to marry Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot leader and member of the Bourbon family.
19. Henry of Navarre’s mother had introduced Calvinism to Navarre
20. Truce ended with the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in August, 1572
21. the Guise family influenced Charles IX through his mother Catherine de’Medici that the gathering of Huguenots in Paris for Henry’s wedding was a threat to the crown
22. King’s guards sought out and murdered prominent Huguenot leaders
23. King’s actions unleashed a wave of violence as Catholic mobs killed 3,000 Huguenots in Paris
24. Thousands more Huguenots were killed in the towns and provinces
25. Massacre eventually worked against Valois dynasty which was badly discredited over the bloodshed
26. After the assassination of two kings, the violence finally ended with the crowning of Henry of Navarre as the CATHOLIC King of France (Henry IV)
27. In 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes which stated:
28. acknowledged Catholicism as France’s official religion
29. guaranteed Huguenots right to worship in selected places in every district in France
30. allowed Huguenots to keep fortified towns
31. allowed Huguenots to enjoy all political privileges

1. Philip II and the Cause of Militant Catholicism
2. Philip II of Spain and the Hapsburg Dynasty (1556-1598)
3. son of Charles V
4. husband of Mary I of England; she died in 1558
5. great advocate of militant Catholicism and most important political figure in the 2nd half of the 16th Century other than possibly Elizabeth I
6. Goals of Philip II
7. first goal was to consolidate and secure lands inherited from his father
8. his most important goal was to make Spain the dominant power of Europe
9. successful at leading the Holy League against Muslim, Mediterranean holdings (Battle of Lepanto-1571)
10. championed all things Catholic
11. Turned his royal palace, Escorial, into a functioning monastery
12. Gold and silver poured into Spain from New World
13. Problems Of Philip II
14. the influx of gold and silver made inflation skyrocket which disrupted domestic textile and agricultural production
15. he wasn’t good at delegating authority
16. debt overwhelmed his monarchy (2/3’s of state income went to servicing the debt
17. foreign policy fiascos with the Netherlands and England

1. The Revolt of the Netherlands
2. Netherlands revolted against Philip II because of:
3. the Dutch were tired of paying taxes to support Spanish interests
4. Dutch nobles thought they would lose privileges as Philip II attempted to strengthen his grip on the region
5. Dutch citizens who were becoming increasingly Calvinist viewed Catholic Philip II with suspicion
6. Revolt started when Calvinists began destroying statues and stain glass windows in Catholic churches
7. Philip II sent Duke of Alva and 10,000 troops to put down rebellion
8. Duke of Alva instituted the Council of Troubles which set into motion a reign of terror against powerful Calvinists
9. William of Orange led the Calvinist resistance
10. Revolt ended with a truce that divided the Netherlands into northern and southern provinces
11. Northern provinces would become an independent Dutch republic
12. Southern provinces remained under Hapsburg control
13. The England of Elizabeth
14. England under Elizabeth I (1558-1603):
15. became leading Protestant country in Europe
16. laid the foundations for a world empire
17. experienced a cultural renaissance
18. Elizabeth, half sister of Mary I, based her religious policies on the concepts of moderation and compromise as she put the interest of the state above religious ideology
19. With Catholicism being identified with the unpopular Spanish, Catholic numbers dwindled in England
20. Catholic Mary Queen of Scots did pose a threat to Elizabeth
21. Mary Queen of Scots, cousin to Elizabeth, was next in line to the throne after Elizabeth
22. Mary Q of S fled from Scotland to England fearing for her life after a successful Calvinist revolt there
23. A suspicious Elizabeth put Mary Q of S under house arrest upon her arrival
24. In 1587, Elizabeth had Mary Q of S beheaded after she was implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth
25. Puritans were an unwanted distraction to Elizabeth that she successfully contained during her reign
26. In foreign policy matters, Elizabeth tried to avoid provoking war with other European powers but did approve and support English pirating efforts of Spanish ships and secretly aided Protestants battling Catholic forces in France and the Netherlands
27. In 1588, Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to crush the English navy and to clear the way for a Spanish invasion of England
28. Sent because Philip II was tired of English pirating and its interference in internal Hapsburg matters on the continent.
29. Armada consisted of large, lumbering ships equipped with small guns
30. British navy was smaller, fas````ter, and had superior guns
31. Combination of British navy and bad weather doomed the Armada
32. Remnants of the Armada returned to Spain battered and beaten although fighting would continue between England and Spain for 16 more years
33. From the moment the Armada was defeated, England rose in power both within Europe and on the world stage while Spain began its slow but steady decline as a power

1. Economic and Social Crises
2. Inflation and Economic Stagnation
3. Inflation was a major economic problem during the 16th and early 17th Centuries
4. Though the inflation rate was probably a relatively low 2 to 3 percent a year, it was noticeable in a Europe accustomed to stable prices
5. Wages failed to keep up with price increases (wage earners standard of living dropped as a result)
6. Possible Causes of 16th & 17th Century Inflation
7. Influx of precious metals from the New World
8. Rapidly increasing population (increased demand for food & land)
9. By the 1620s, inflation was replaced by economic contraction particularly in ItalySpain
10. Trade, Industry, Banking, and Agriculture
11. The Flourishing European trade of the 16th Century

revolved around 3 major areas:

1. The Mediterranean in the south
2. The low Countries and the Baltic region in the north
3. Central Europe which relied on the Rhine & Danube

1. The commercial expansion of the 16th and 17th centuries was made easier by new forms of commercial organization especially joint-stock trading companies which were able to raise huge sums of capital for world trading ventures
2. Commercial banks replaced the traditional family banking institutions
3. Despite the growth of commercial capitalism, 80% to 90% of Europeans still relied on Agriculture for their incomes.

1. Population and the Growth of Cities
2. The16th century was a period of expanding population in Europe as the population went from 60 million in 1500 to 85 million in 1600
3. Warmer climate
4. Increased food supply
5. The rise in population was reflected in the growth of cities by 1600
6. Paris’ population was 500,000 (largest city in Europe)
7. Naples’ population was 300,000
8. London’ population was 250,000
9. 17th Century cities visibly reflected the remarkable disparity in wealth during the century

1. 17th Century Crises: War and Rebellions
2. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
3. A struggle between militant Catholicism and militant Calvinism played an important role in the wars outbreak
4. Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were even more important as the war progressed
5. Although much of the fighting took place in Germany, the war escalated into a European –wide conflict
6. France looked to break out of its Hapsburg encirclement
7. Spain looked to regain the Netherlands after losing the territory in a “temporary” truce
8. The Austrian Hapsburg wished to consolidate their holdings in Austria & Bohemia by eliminating Protestantism and creating stronger central authority
9. Protestant Union (1608)
10. Formed by the Elector Palatine Frederick IV
11. League of German Protestant states
12. Backed by Dutch, English, & French
13. Catholic League (1609)
14. Organized by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria
15. Catholic union designed to counteract its Protestant rival group
16. Backed by Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor
17. Bohemian Phase of the Thirty Years’ War
18. lasted from 1618-1625
19. Protestant nobles rebelled against the Catholic ruler Ferdinand in Bohemia
20. Protestant nobles managed to kick Ferdinand out of Bohemia and replaced him with a Protestant ruler, Frederick IV, who was the leader of the P.U.
21. Ferdinand, while ousted from Bohemia, became the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
22. With the backing of the C.L., Ferdinand defeated Frederick’s forces at the Battle of White Mountain outside of Prague in 1620.
23. Ferdinand, Duke Maximilian, and the Spanish Hapsburgs divided up the spoils after defeating Frederick
24. Danish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
25. lasted from 1625-1629
26. King Christian IV attempted to intervene on the Protestants’ behalf by invading northern Germany
27. Danes most likely hoped to annex the German provinces along the Baltic Sea
28. Danes & Protestant forces were whipped by the pro-Catholic imperial army led by the brilliant Albrecht von Wallenstein
29. Danes defeat ended their involvement in the war and even ended their dominance in the Baltic
30. After the defeat of the Danes, Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution (1629)
31. prohibited Calvinist worship
32. restored to the Catholic Church all land taken by Protestant princes in Germany from the church over the previous 75 years.
33. angered the princes greatly
34. Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
35. lasted from 1630-1635
36. Phase began when Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus entered the fighting in northern Germany on behalf of the Protestants
37. With French financial backing, Gustavus, a brilliant military leader, swept the imperial “Catholic” forces out of northern Germany and chased them southward
38. Von Wallenstein, who had been relieved of command of imperial forces for political reasons at the end of the Danish phase, was placed in command of imperial forces once again
39. Von Wallenstein’s imperial army met Gustavus’ Swedes at the Battle of Luzen (1632) near Leipzig
40. the battle was a Swedish victory
41. Swedes paid a high price as Gustavus was killed in battle
42. Swedish army was never the same after the death of their brilliant leader
43. less effective Swedish army was defeated by von Wallenstein-less (victim of assassination) imperial army at the Battle of Nordlingen (1634) which drove the Swedes out of southern Germany
44. victory guaranteed that southern Germany would remain Catholic
45. Ferdinand repealed Edict of Restitution in an effort to end hostilities with Protestant nobles
46. Franco-Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War
47. lasted from 1635-1648
48. religious differences became secondary to dynastic rivalries during this phase
49. Catholic French & Protestant Swedes took on Catholic Hapsburgs of Germany and Spain
50. War considered by most to be part of the greater struggle between Bourbon France and Hapsburg Spain
51. Decisive battle was the Battle of Rocroi (1643) where the French defeated the Spanish bringing to an end Spanish military greatness
52. Peace of Westphalia (1648)
53. ended fighting in Germany
54. allowed German states to determine their religion
55. Impact of 30 Years’ War
56. Bourbons and France emerged as dominant power in Europe
57. Witnessed the devastation of most of the German countryside
58. Brought to an end the Holy Roman Empire as a single political entity and ensured German disunity for 200 more years
59. A Military Revolution?
60. by the 17th century, war played an increasingly important role in European affairs
61. Medieval warfare had been replaced by a new modern warfare which included:
62. use of conscripts rather than mercenaries (Gustavus)
63. more flexible military tactics because of conscripts
64. infantry armed with pikes and halberds and organized into massive rectangles (battalions)
65. utilization of firearms and cannons limited effectiveness of cavalry
66. better disciplined armies
67. Rebellions

--Rebellions that swept through Europe at the time of the 30 Years’ War indirectly resulted in an increase in the power of the European monarchies.