CHAPTER-2

POLICIES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND THE SELF-HELP GROUP SCHEME

  • Introduction
  • Conceptualization of Empowerment and Women Empowerment
  • Why to Empower Rural Women in India?
  • Constitutional Safeguards and Legislative Support for Empowerment of Women
  • Gender Policies and Programmes in India
  • Other Interventions
  • Emergence of the Self-Help Concept
  • Concluding Remarks

Introduction

The term ‘empowerment’ has been derived from the word ‘power’. In today’s world, empowerment has become the core theme of most of the development issues that especially deal with economic backwardness, vulnerability and economically backward sections of society. Thus, the word ‘empowerment’ ismost frequently used in development matters.

According to ‘Wikipedia’, a free online and widely used encyclopaedia, empowerment refers to “increasing the spiritual, political, social or economic strength of individuals and communities.”[2]As per the same source, sociological meaning of empowered groups often indicates tothose groups, the members of which areexcluded from social discrimination processes and participate in decision-making processes irrespective ofrace, ethnicity, religion, gender or disability.

However, theconceptof empowerment varies according to different users and in different perspectives. The simple literal meaning of empowerment denotes the action of enabling individuals, groups or society as a whole through access to and control over all types of resources and opportunities within the given context. The general concept of empowerment and specific concept of women empowerment with special reference to economic empowerment have been discussed in the present chapter.

Conceptualization of Empowerment and Women Empowerment

In consistency with the present time and situation, the phenomenon of empowerment (including women empowerment) has been viewed and identified in this study on the basis of its conceptualization by different scholars in the modern and post-modern contexts (Beteille, 1995; Dillabough, 2006; Gandhi and Shah, 1991; Geetha, 2007; Giri, 1998; Gupta, 2002; Hall, 1992; Indira and Shanthi, 1997; Jain and Shekhawat, 2007; Jeremiah, 2007; Pandey, 2002; Pillai Kothari, 1995; Pramanik, Nath and Adhikary, 2007; Singh, 2007; Uberoi, 2007; Yadav, 2007). In accordance with this,an attempt has been made here to view some major concepts of empowerment, women empowerment and women’s economic empowerment that have been discussed by various eminent scholars. A concrete rationale has also been sought to justify the need of empowerment of rural women.

Concept of Empowerment

In the context of development, it is the power that begins with the first step of strengthening one’s capabilities, through acquiring of knowledge, strength and experience (Hashemi, Schuler and Risely, 1996). To follow this notion, empowerment should havethe following features:

(a)Access to and control over productive resources.

(b)knowledge and awareness of one’s self and society, and of personal needs, health issues, legal rights, technological innovations and availability of social and economic resources and how to take advantage of them.

(c)Self-image.

(d)Autonomy.

Empowerment is also conceived as a multi-dimensional and continuous process that enables individuals or group of individuals to realize and establish the desired power by removing inequalities at different levels in an effective manner (Mayoux, 2003). This is a process that can be achieved or self- generated but cannot be delivered; a process that determines entitlement of rights and status not merely by adequate participation and decision-making. This concept, which indicatestoward increase in people’s ability to make several choices andmaking changes from a disempowered state to empowered conditions  as has been adopted by several post-modern feminist scholars and activists (Butler, 1990; Chatterji, 2000).

Hence, empowerment is not an object or event; it is an ideology that reflects a particular state of mind (Sachchidananda and Kumar, 2004) that is based upon self-confidence, self-reliance and determination of its survival through meaningful strategies.

As empowerment is rooted in the key word ‘power’, therefore, it is essential to perceive the understanding of power as per the context and purpose while understanding empowerment. Eminent feminist Manchon (2000) defines power that consists primarily in being able to take a decision which will affect someone else in acting to force, forbid or prevent.

However, the basic difference between power and empowerment is that, power can be given or permitted whereas empowerment is a process that can only be developed out of genuine interest. Real empowerment never depends on external forces or power.

In fact, the conceptualization of empowerment may have its baseon some fundamental questions like: who,why and how is to be empowered. Contextual variations often bring variations in the meaning of empowerment. One should be careful while measuring empowerment in individual and in collective terms.

Through in-depthexperience of studies, many scholars have observed that, the process of empowerment is never complete as it has become crucial for women to survive and live through varying innovative strategies under a society that is ever-changing (Mahadevan, Pisharoti and Subramanyam, 2003; Srinivas, 1955; op cit, 1962; Singh, 2000; Devi, 2000; Devi, 1997; Devendra, 1994).

Concept of Women Empowerment

The phenomenon of women empowerment today has become a rising issue for women’s development and has been conceptualized by the policy makers, administrators as well as the academicians. This is mainly because of the subordination women face worldwide. Although they constitute about half of the world’s rich human resource, yet because of this sort of gender inequality the experiences and roles of women do always differ from those of men in the process of social development and change (Evans-Pritchard, 1965). The situation is worse in the developing countries.

Women empowerment has been felt as a universal necessity under the impact of the inference that came through the ‘UN declaration of Women’s Rights, 1967’ on the doctrine of equality on achieving equal rights for women, and there was a declaration by the same to observe the year 1975 as the ‘International Women’s Year’ (Kuriakose, 2005; Dutta and Ghosh, 2002). In the meantime, the need for women’s empowerment received importance with the UN’s General Assembly on ‘Women and Development’ held in 1974 (Kaushik, 1997). These were followed and complemented by the UN’s more significant step  the 1979 ‘Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’ or CEDAW which Indiaand its Supreme Court have frequently relied upon (Mayoux, 2003; Kuriakose, 2005). The ‘Fourth UN World Conference on Women’ held in Beijing in 1995 createdan attempt to emphasize women’s right on judicial aspect, and clearly pointed out the relation between women’s poverty and gender inequality (Lodha, 2003; Narasimhan, 1999). All the above-stated steps were actually initiated by the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948’through which the need for women empowerment received due importance (Mayoux, 2003).

In case of Indian policy-making and women’s development, women empowerment has become today the central theme. The idea of empowerment for Indian women is almost equivalent to that of rights. This is because of the age old patriarchal system of Indian society that has marginalized them of most of the human rights and has pushed them in an oppressed condition (Joseph, 1997). Therefore, empowerment of Indian women indicates two main things: their liberty from the subordinate state at the social level and having rights and equality againstgender bias. From this point of view, these rights are fundamentally of two types: economic right and social right.

Women empowerment broadly focuses on the enhancement of women’s level of self reliance choice-making and increasing their potentials(Rao, 2004; Vajpayee, 2001). This is to change their socio-economically inferior status and to improve their relations within the family as well as society at large. Under this theme, concept of women empowerment has been rationalized by entailing four mutually interrelated components, viz.:

(a)Collective awareness, capacity building and skill development.

(b)Participation and greater control.

(c)Decision-making power.

(d) Action to bring about gender equality.

Rao’s conceptualization of women empowerment implies control over decisions-making process at socio-cultural, economic, psychological and political levels. This view clarifies that development strategies all over the world are mostly equal when they are women-centered.

For Singh (2005), empowerment of women means: having the freedom and right to be provided with free, safe and healthy environment and healthy society; to get educated, develop skills so that facing problems and decision-making in life would be easier; to achieve gender equality and gender justice, to live with modified traditional values, broader vision and positively changed mind–set of people.

In the context of development, Deshmukh-Randive (2005) views empowerment of women as a process by which there is shift from inequality of participation to achieving equality. And this is how empowerment reduces the barriersthatobstruct equal participation. In order to achieve such empowered status, according to Deshmukh-Ranadive, women should go for collective action.

Jhunjhunwala and Jhunjhunwala (2004) estimate that the empowered status of Indian women is something, which they deserveideally but do not get the entitlement in reality. That is, the situation in which women should be duly acknowledged of their roles and responsibilities. In other words, true empowerment of women comes through the replacement of inequality by the sense of equality.

According to Roy (2003), women empowerment is a generation of awareness that would provide women to be conscious of their own strengths and weaknesses so that, they would rectify themselves accordingly, identify the means for their further development.

Banerjee (1995) conceptualizes women’s empowerment as a truly effective factor for the changed context for today’s women living in the broader spheres of social, cultural, economic and political scenarios. The author sees women’s empowerment as a continuous process for having equality of opportunity in terms of gender, social classes and age groups.

Mishra and Mallick (2002) and Ganesamurthy (2007 and 2008) describe women empowerment on one hand, as a process that enables women to gain and increase self-reliance on their own and to have control over resources in eliminating their subordinate position;a shift from powerlessness to powerful condition through social, economic and political participation. On the other hand they stress that, women empowerment has a wide range of contexts and may be seen as a combination of multiple dimensions.

Singh (2005) sees women as the frequent victims of poverty and human rights violation, hence facing these challenges and overcoming them should ensure them a true empowerment. He thinks that economic and social strategies are important to achieve the empowered status.

According to Rout(2007) development and empowerment also depend on mutual support. This is because organizational skilland cooperation lead to the essence of empowerment. The view of this author too, shows that sincere collective activities have significant effect on empowerment of women.

Lata (1990)’sview much specifically points to the phenomenon of women empowerment. Her idea of empowerment, especially of Indian women, includes women’s movements that have moved from welfare and beneficiary aspect to the level that includes women as active agents in policies and programmes. She also interrelates betweenchanges in women’s lives and that in the lives of men and children.

Hans (2007) has also described empowerment as combinationof different strategies that may enable women to utilize their potentials rightly. According to him it also meansimproved access to knowledge and resources, greater control over their lives and greater participation in decision making processes.

Narasaiah (Narasaiah2004a; Narasaiab, 2004b) views that, women empowerment is synonymous withthe raised and improved situation of women and the key of such improvement lies in their total participation for their own economic self-sufficiency and higher awareness levels on social, political and legal issues. This view also emphasizes the importance of the diverse roles of women like reproductive and productive roles.

Ram (2004) addresses the immense importance of empowering rural women by making them self-sufficient through increased knowledge and skills that are very much relevant to their day-to-day life.

Devasia and Devasia (2000) have prescribed women’s empowerment in terms of their dignity in society and equal treatment at par with men, providing them enough opportunity in order to enable them to manifest their true talent, and after all, giving them the due space to establish their voices instead of silencing them by words of false convictionand promise that have only been uttered but never implemented really.

Jha and Pujari (1998) see education as a meansfor access to knowledge for women, which thus, becomes the point of control in the process of empowerment and hence, empowered position opens the opportunity of new possibilities and offers to enjoy making decision on multiple choices.

Malhotra (2004)shows how the term ‘empowerment’ has emerged as a new word in the international field and explains the different angles in conceptualizing this phenomenon. She thinks that women empowerment has emerged to respond to the power and the need of new recognition of and new realization for womento enable them at the control of resources, self confidence and opportunity to participate in decision-making processes.

Women empowerment and its effect must be widely accepted and specially, rural women’s potentials be properly recognized and their empowerment process should be directed into mainstream programmes for this purpose. This view is given by Jumani (1991). According to her, women empowerment is multi-dimensional with aspects that are important for society.

Mittal (1995) explains women empowerment from the angle of literacy. The author feels, if literacy means to acquire the ability to read and write about the things and happenings related to everyday life, and to understand written documents — then this ability certainlyenables one to understand the situation in which one lives and to take steps for improving it.

Rationale of Women’s Economic Empowerment

Many scholars have developed different criteria for measuring women empowerment. As there is always transformation in economic conditions, hence the empowered status through economic empowerment is more visible and has primary and direct contribution to overall empowerment process (Ganesamurthy, 2007). Further, it is often found that due to the lack of economic independence, women find no other option but to surrender to their inferior status (Boserup, 1970; Sakthi, 2006; Malhotra, 2004; Kumari, 2007).

In the economic arena, women thus keep facing discriminations in comparison to men, mainly owing to their poor participation in economic decision-making and exercising less or no power over economic resources at every level. Even their economic contributions to the family income do not guarantee them sureupgradation of their status. Hence, it is a high time to seek the real nature and extent of their empowerment (Rowlands, 1997).

Still more often than not, it has been found that economic acquirement brings some positive changes in their rate of participation in decision-making within the family, and also improves their status in the society (Singh, 2005). It is also true that due to gendered division of work, women hardly get the opportunities that they need to use their economic capacities. This sort of disadvantage strongly shows the need for empowerment of women in the economic sphere.

Further, the facts of growing percentage of poor women in the last few years in India and lack of sufficient progress in the country’s poverty elimination programmesclearly indicate that, there is a keen relation between these two facts (Dharmambal and Vijayalakshmi, 2004). In addition, the increasing rate of poverty among women is the single most important factor to interrupt the progress of development of thenation.

Women constitute about half of the world’s population and perform two-thirds of the world’s work, but they receive only one-tenth of the total income less than a hundredth of the world’s property (Balakrishnan, 2005; Karmakar, 1999; Narasimhan, 1999). Moreover, it more significant to find that out of the world’s poor population of 1.3 billion, 70 per cent are women  as per the UNDP’s Human Development Report, 1995 (UNDP, 1995). These entire facts and figures sum up into the indication of poverty of women around the world — a reason strong enough to make the logic of why women must be empowered economically (Narasimhan, 1999).

Why to Empower Rural Women in India?

The condition of poverty is found to be the most remarkable characteristic feature of Indian economy and the most explicit manifestation of disempowered situation as well (Rao, 2004; Banerjee, 2004; Narayan, 2002). Poverty is a very complex phenomenon with diversified aspects and is mainly visible through socio-economic deprivation condition of human life. From social point of view, it may be seen as one’s inferior social position, low literacy level, powerlessness and humiliation and inability to have the basic necessities of life.

Specifically, economic povertymay be determined by low per capita income level, malnutrition, poor health and housing conditions, etc. When women’s poverty is to be judged, it may be broadly viewed as a socio-economically disadvantaged state that results out of insufficient expression of their economic capabilities, social barriers thrust on them against such exposure, their poor access to and control over productive resources including formal credit facilities, inferior position in the labour market and earning meager income (Narasaiah, 2004b; Samanta, 1995; Rahman, 2007).

Although the percentage of poverty has decreased to some extent in comparison to the past years, but by number it has increased and thereby, poverty is found to be increasingly more intensive in rural areasthan urban areas (Sau, 1998; Razavi, 2003). This has been more substantiated by the world Development Report, 1990 (Sau, 1998) that reveals how rural poverty is often overlooked due to putting more focus on urban poverty and thus making it more visible. In reality, rural areas face worse conditions in comparison to urban areas in terms of literacy rate, income level, mortality rate, life expectancy, etc. When observing the poverty situation of women in India, it has been found that majority of the Indian population below poverty line consists ofwomen (Mohanty, 2002; Vermaet al, 2006). All these facts and figures evidently show why women should be the main target group for poverty eradication policies, programmes and strategies all over the worldin general and India in specific.