ARTIFACT #4A: RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT
Artifact#4a: Research Knowledge Assessment
Roxanne Sylvester
Walden University
Applied Research in Education
EDUC 8102-12
Dr. Jenelle Braun-Monegan
December 12, 2010
2
ARTIFACT #4A: RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT
Abstract
This paper provides an overview of philosophical framework of research, core research concepts, and information on various research designs and approaches. The philosophical framework explains the concept of scientific realism, social constructivism, pragmatism, and advocacy/liberatory utilizing real life situations that frame philosophical ideas and trends. The differences and similarities of theoretical and conceptual frameworks are outlined to explain phenomena or variables. Since the quality of a research study hinges critically on the rationale and purpose of the qualitative or quantitative sampling approach, the topic of sampling and population was addressed. More importantly, the information provided will be useful for the beginning researcher to understanding the elements that frame research study, as well as, the importance of research in the improvement of knowledge and the enhancement of practices.
Research Knowledge Assessment
Philosophy of Research
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data for a specific purpose or measured phenomenon. Educational research has affected ideas about education and the practices used to achieve objectives in education. For instance, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) enactment in 2001 has improved education for underprivileged students by holding national schools accountable for “monitoring and reporting student progress based on test scores”(Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010, p.2). The philosophical framework of educational research ideas is “scientific and disciplined inquiry (social science) using quantitative and qualitative approaches” (Mills, 2002, p.7). Researchers use basic, applied, and evaluation research to develop and change theories and exhibit the value of theories in research practices.
Research provides valid information and knowledge about education to make informed decisions. According to Mills (2002), educational research has become a valuable source of information to a number of diverse groups. For example, educators are constantly trying to understand educational processes and must make professional decisions to influence students, teachers, parents, and the community. Researchers make decisions by relying on experience, expert opinion, tradition, feeling, and beliefs. Non-educational policy groups, such as state and federal legislatures and courts, have increasingly mandated changes in educational policies. Reviews of prior research have interpreted empirical evidence. For example, studies on retention indicate that retaining a child in a grade serves few educational purposes. (p. 5).
As a budding researcher, I questioned how empiricism relates to quantitative research methodology. An explanation was revealed in Long’s (2010) lecture on the development of philosophical frameworks and approaches that inform research methods. He indicated that empiricism is learned through observation and experience. According to Hergenhahn (2001), empiricism evolved during the modern period and gained influence and privilege as an epistemology (knowing through the experience), which was associated with sensory experience (knowing through observation). This form of empiricism was popularized before modern science emerged.
In the modern period, logic and empiricism dominated the epistemological position previously held by religion. Empiricism and reason formed the new paradigm (modernism) and scientific empiricism resulted from the merger. In applying the principles of logic to the empirical process, a scientific method emerged and cultivated the scientific revolution of the modern period. This modernist approach to knowing maintained control until the postmodern period emerged. Postmodernism questioned any singular epistemology having a privileged position. (Hoffman, 2005).
Scientific realism is connected to positivism (also connected to empiricism) and the assumption that “external things, the natural world or objects around us, influence our perceptions and understanding of the world” (Long, 2010). Mills (2002) explained that quantitative research is usually based on some form of “logical positivism,” which assumes there are stable, social facts with a single reality, separated from the feelings and beliefs of individuals. Ultimately, realists are inclined to engage in quantitative techniques when performing research.
Educational research on schools seeking to improve educational practices can be obtained through “systemic methods and techniques” (Lodico et al., 2010, p.4) such as scientific method, positivism, and post-positivism research. Using scientific method, researchers apply the following scientific process: 1) asks a question inquiry, 2) collects new data, 3) analyze the data, 4) interprets and reports findings, 5) generates a new question to investigate next. (Lodico et al., 2010, p.4). The concept of positivism is important to research because it is not based on assumptions; instead, it relies on positive facts or sensory objects. For instance in social science, positivism promotes testing of theory, recording and measuring observations, and making conclusion to determine if the observations or measurements support the theory. (Long, 2010). Post positivism on the other hand, emphasizes that knowledge and observation is not absolutely trustworthy, but still focuses on achieving objectivity utilizing “multiple measures and observations and triangulates those measures and observations across multiple sources” (Long, 2010)
Objectivity refers to data collection and analysis procedures from which a reasonable interpretation can be made; and the quality of the data produced by procedures, which either control for bias or take into account subjectivity. For example the objective of No Child Left Behind legislation, is to make schools “accountable for monitoring and reporting student progress based on test scores…to increase achievements for America’s students” (lodico et al., 2010, p. 2). The importance of objectivity in research is critical when conducting and presenting research for the following purposes: 1) to identify the facts based on credible information and scientific method, and 2) to interpret the results of data analysis based on the observable facts of the findings, presented factually, and not on our own subjective opinions. The challenges of objectivity are undertaking a detached role to maintain a clear objective and reliable conclusion.
Grasping the philosophical frameworks for educational research is pivotal for a research novice. Speaking from experience, learning the different approaches and considering which approach influences my assumption of real world situations is testing. However, reviewing Lodico et al. (2010) and Long (2010) information on the philosophical developments of scientific realism, social constructivism, advocacy/liberatory, and pragmatism facilitated my understanding of knowledge-oriented approaches of scientific realism and social constructivism, and action-oriented approaches of advocacy-liberatory and pragmatism.
The scientific realism of quantitative approach and the social constructivism of qualitative research capture assumptions about real life situations. Scientific realism researchers “answer research questions by producing numerical data that represent various constructs and variables… to establish cause-and-effect (Lodico et al., 2010, p. 6). For example in NCLB, researchers use annual testing, academic progress, report cards, and teaching quality to produce quantitative data. Social constructivism researchers dispute the findings of scientific realist and “use data collection methods that bring them closer to the participants using techniques such as in depth observations, life histories, interviews, videos, and pictures” (Lodico et al., 2010, p. 8).
Paulo Freire (1921-1997) (as cited in Lodico et al. 2010) based his philosophical studies on the assumptions of advocacy or liberatory frameworks, which states “there are multiple possible realities that are dependent on social, political, and economic contexts” (Lodico et al., 2010, p.8). He also believed that research should provide “freedom from oppression and debilitating living environment” Lodico et al., 2010, p. 9).This approach utilized mixed-methods (qualitative and quantitative) to collaborate with participants and collect data. Researchers focus on educating to produce knowledge and empowering people to use their voices to accomplish social change. Case in point, Athanases and Larrabee’s (2003) (as cited in Macgillivray & Jennings, 2008) investigation of the methods of instruction in teacher preparation coursework and the students’ response to instruction regarding gay issues in schools, promoted an advocacy/liberatory stance toward gay and lesbian students. (p. 176). The pragmatism approach also uses a mixed- method approach to identify what works in a given situation. In other words, find the problem, evaluate the alternatives, and come up with a solution. According to Lodico et al. (2010) “it does not matter if there is a single reality or multiple realities as long as we discover answers that help us do things that we want to do”(p.9). As a researcher, I am most concerned with understanding what works, and why or if something does not work.
In research, theoretical and conceptual frameworks are key points in social and behavioral science. Long (2010) explained that a framework comprises of theories and concepts that explain phenomena or variables. In the social sciences, conceptual frameworks are created or designed to bring together a set of loose ideas or concepts, which helps to establish possible relationships. Using examples of data collection and analysis to assess student learning, Long
(2010) explained that the concept includes cognitive, skills, attitudes, and values outcomes to develop causal relationship and research process. Conceptual framework is associated with qualitative research, and contributes to theory and theoretical frameworks by establishing possible relationship. In contrast, theoretical frameworks and theory is associated with quantitative methods and attempts to establish causal relationship between ideas or concepts. For example, X causes Y, or Y is part of process caused or explained by X. (Long, 2010). Both theoretical and conceptual frameworks relate to research studies to develop research questions, test and develop hypotheses, and create or reinforce change.
Core Concept for Research Design
The core concept of research is to advance knowledge and improve practices. Reviewing the structure of research study will help beginning researchers to understand the structure, components, and variations of research articles. So let us take a journey to learn the core concepts of research and understand the research process. Before discussing the reason for identifying a research question, we must identify the important characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research and site these characteristics within the research process. “In this way, you will identify the differences between the two approaches in a meaningful way rather than simply learning the characteristics in an abstract sense” (Mills, 2002, p. 55). Understanding the characteristics allows beginning researchers to make the right decisions about how to proceed (will you write research questions or hypotheses) and how to design the research study. Knowing the characteristics allow you to recognize quantitative or qualitative research studies.
Normally, research studies are developed from a research question that can be answered through data collection. “Researchable questions should also clearly define the variables (quantitative research) and identify themes, processes, and meaning (qualitative research) being investigated” (Lodico et al., 2010, p.27). In educational research, Lodico et al (2010) explained that hypothesis provides “a tentative explanation that can be tested by collecting data” (p.5) in qualitative research. For instance, Arlin can hypothesize that when students participate in a 3-day training workshop on diversity education, there is no significant increase in their acceptance of diversity on a college campus. This hypothesis will be supported by the data Arlin collects.
In quantitative research, Mills (2002) explained that researchers study problems to identify, describe, or explain trends that need to be developed for relationships among variables. Describing a trend means that the research problem can be answered by a study where the researcher seeks to establish the overall tendency of responses from individuals and to note how this tendency varies among people. For instance, a researcher “may seek to learn how voters describe their attitude toward a bond issue. The results from this study informed the researcher about how a larger population views an issue and how diverse their views are about the issue” (Mills, 2002, p. 57).
In contrast, Mills (2002) continued to explain that qualitative research examines a research problem in which the researcher explores and seeks to understand a central phenomenon. An exploration means that little is known in the literature about the phenomenon of study and the researcher needs to learn more from participants. Case in point, researchers may not know much about how deaf children think when using sign language, and qualitative research can explore this phenomenon from the perspective of the children. To understand the concept, the researcher needs to learn the complexity of the phenomenon. The process of thinking when using sign language is a complex idea and aspects need to be studied qualitatively. “The research problem of learning how best to teach children who are deaf requires both an exploration and an understanding of qualitative research about how the children think” (Mills, 2002, p. 57).
Once the problem is identified, the researcher justifies the research problem by reviewing the literature (reading topic related articles). With the information gathered from reading primary or secondary sources, the researcher can think about specifying the “purpose” for the research study. In quantitative research, the researcher asks specific, narrow questions to obtain measurable and observable data on variables. “The major statements and questions of direction in a study—the purpose statement, the research questions, and the hypotheses—are specific and narrow because the researcher isolates a few variables to study” (Mills, 2002, p.59).
In qualitative research, the purpose is much more open-ended than in quantitative research. Researchers ask general, broad questions to learn from participants. The purpose statement expresses the direction for researchers identify a single phenomenon of interest. For example, in a qualitative study examining the “professionalism” of teachers, the investigator may ask high school teachers, “What does it mean to be a professional?” The question focuses on understanding the ideas of being a professional; the responses yield the data for qualitative research.
After identifying the research topic and questions, the researcher should proceed to conduct a literature review for the proposed study. Literature review summarizes and synthesizes relevant literature for a particular research problem and provides insight on the study. The purpose of the literature review is to gain knowledge on the subject matter, which is used to define the problem, develop the research design, relate the results of the study to historical data, propose further research, and develop a hypothesis. Literature for a review includes many types of sources: articles in professional journals, reports, scholarly books and monographs, government documents, dissertations, and electronic resources.
According to Lodico et al. (2010), effective researchers know how to use the source to conduct quality literature review. The authors stated, “Sources for a research proposal are considered strongest if they are peer reviewed…and rated the quality of the methods used in them” (p. 32). The majority of the articles reviewed should be selected from empirical research or primary sources (original research done by the author or authors), preferably in the last 5 years. Information gathered from secondary sources (articles written by someone describing original research) such as books, “describes empirical research, but it usually provides less information on the research methods and so is usually considered to be a weaker type of source” (Lodico, et al., 2010, p. 32). The quality of the information receive from non-empirical articles, expressing opinion or commentaries, must be scrutinized for credibility.