National Swine Reproduction Troubleshooting and Management Guide
Donald G. Levis, PhD
Levis Worldwide Swine Consultancy
5910 South 88th Street
Lincoln, NE 68526-9486
Email:
A few years ago, I made a request to the United States Pork Center of Excellence (USPCE) that they should develop educational materials to help pork producers, veterinarians and other allied industry consultants troubleshoot reproductive problems on the sow-farm. I made the request because there is very few university Extension Swine Specialists academically trained in reproductive physiology that conduct on-farm swine visits and conduct training sessions. Thus, there is very limited access for“grass-roots”pork producers to receive educational information related to applied swine reproductive physiology. Reproductive performance is a major key for success of the pork industry. On a daily basis, it is the management and caretakers that can significantly impact the reproductive performance of the sow-farm. It is critically important that management, consultants, and caretakers have access to “practical and useable” information to help them solve reproductive problems.
Dr. David Meisinger (former CEO of USPCE) was receptive of my request to develop educational materials related to reproduction of swine. Dr. Meisinger formed a team of Extension Swine Specialists and scientists to prepare the National Swine Reproduction Troubleshooting and Management Guide (Table 1).
Table 1. Authors of National Swine Reproduction Troubleshooting and Management GuideName / Specialty / Location
Donald G. Levis, PhD
(Chair of team) / Reproductive physiology / Levis Worldwide Swine Consultancy
Professor Emeritus-University of Nebraska
Mark J. Estienne, PhD / Reproductive physiology / Virginia Tech
William F. Flowers, PhD / Reproductive physiology / North Carolina State University
Robert V. Knox, PhD / Reproductive physiology / University of Illinois
Wayne L. Singleton, PhD / Reproductive physiology / Purdue University
Professor Emeritus
Kenneth J. Stalder, PhD / Swine genetics / Iowa State University
Mark T. Knauer, PhD / Swine genetics / North Carolina State University
Timothy J. Safranski, PhD / Swine genetics / University of Missouri
Rodney B. Baker, DVM / Swine veterinarian / Iowa State University
The National Swine Reproduction Troubleshooting and Management Guide (NSR-TMG) is a web-based program that helps pork producers, veterinarians, and other allied industry consultants solve reproductive problems. Although diseases (such as Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus) can have significant effects on reproductive performance, numerous other non-disease factors can significantly decrease reproductive performance. The NSR-TMG is user-friendly and written in a manner that can be easily understood by caretakers. The NSR-TMG is organized into three themes: (1) Replacement gilt problems related to reproduction, (2) Sow problems related to reproduction, and (3) Semen quality problems. Table 2 indicates the sub-divisions within each theme. Table 3 indicates the size of the NSR-TMG document. User will need to contact the National Pork Board to purchase a license to use the NSR-TMG program.
Table 2. Title and authors of the 10 modulesTitle of module / Authors
Theme: Replacement Gilt Reproductive Problems
1 / Puberty Attainment and Estrous Expression / Estienne and Levis
2 / Gilt Pool Too Small / Levis, Stalder, and Estienne
3 / Gilts: Low Litter Size / Levis, Flowers and Baker
4 / Gilts: Low Farrowing Rate / Levis and Baker
Theme: Sow Reproductive Problems
5 / Sow longevity is low / Stalder, Estienne, Levis and Baker
6 / Sows: Low Farrowing Rate / Levis, Baker and Knauer
7 / Sows: Low Litter Size / Flowers, Levis and Baker
8 / Extended Weaning-to-Service Interval / Knox, Levis and Baker
9 / High Preweaning Mortality of Piglets / Levis, Safranski and Baker
Theme: Semen Quality
10 /
- Receiving, storing, and handling commercial or off-site boar stud semen at the sow farm
- Collecting, processing, storing, and handling of semen on the sow farm
Table 3. Number of questions with answers, number of pages with questions and answers, and number of pages with references by question of National Swine Reproduction Troubleshooting and Management Guide
Number of questions and answers / Number of pages
Item / Questions & answers / References by questions / Total
pages
Gilt reproduction problem
- Puberty attainment
- Too small of gilt pool
- Low litter size
- Low farrowing rate
Sow reproduction problem
- Low sow longevity
- Low farrowing rate
- Low litter size
- Extended weaning-to-estrus interval
- High pre-weaning mortality
Semen quality problem
- Semen quality
Total / 1,033 / 578 / 262 / 840
EXAMPLE FOR HOW PROGRAM IS USED
The user believes there is a problem with sows having a low number of piglets born per litter.
Step 1. The user selects a subject matter area where they think a problem is occurring. For this example, the user would click “Problems with sows”.
Select a main category● / Problems with replacement gilts
● / Problems with sows
● / Problems with semen quality
Step 2. The user selects a topic related to reproductive problems with sows. For this example, the user would click “Sows have a low number of piglets born per litter”.
Select the problem with sows● / Sow longevity is too low due to high replacement rate, culling rate, and lameness
● / Sows have a low farrowing rate
● / Sows have a low number of piglets born per litter
● / Weaning-to-service interval is too long
● / Preweaning mortality is too high
Step 3. The user selects an item they believe could be related to low number of piglets born per litter. The user selects only one item at a time. The user can return to this page and select other items. For this example, the user clicks “Factors influencing number of piglets born alive”.
Select the item related to low number of piglets born per litter● / Total born alive is less than 10 piglets
● / Factors influencing number of piglets born alive
● / Factors influencing high number of mummies per litter
● / Factors influencing high number of stillborns per litter
Step 4. After clicking “Factors influencing number of piglets born alive”, the user is presented with a series of questions. The user can review all the answers to the questions or only select the questions they want to see the answer that might be contributing to the reproductive problem on their operation. For this example, the user believes that feed intake during lactation might be contributing to the problem. Therefore, the user clicks “Is feed intake reduced during lactation?”
II. Factors influencing number of piglets born aliveA. Lactation management
2 / Is the average weaning-to-estrus interval greater than 10 days?
3 / Is feed intake reduced during lactation?
4 / Is water consumption decreased during lactation?
5 / Are the daily high temperatures in the barn consistently greater than 80 degrees F?
6 / Do the sows have mastitis or inflammation around their underlines?
7 / Does the lactation diet contain mycotoxins?
8 / Are there sows with lactation lengths less than 16 days?
9 / Is bump weaning, partial-weaning, or split-suckling used during lactation?
B. Breeding and early gestation management
10 / Is the average weaning-to-estrus interval normal (less than 10 days)?
1. Estrous detection
11 / Are the sows exhibiting poor standing reflexes during estrus?
12 / Are the sows given continuous exposure to boars?
13 / Do the heat-check boars appear to be lazy?
14 / Do the boars move quickly through the heat-check rows?
2. Quality of insemination procedures
15 / Are ALL breeding technicians well trained to perform artificial inseminations?
16 / Are ALL breeding technicians motivated/dedicated to properly perform artificial inseminations?
17 / Are sows bred a set number of times without checking for estrus?
18 / Are the AM and PM matingsof the same sow administered less than 6 hours apart?
19 / Does the herd have a high percentage of sows bred for 3 days with the standing reflex of the sows on the third day being poor?
20 / Do most sows seem to show a poor standing reflex during matings?
21 / Does it take a long time for most sows to accept semen during traditional insemination?
22 / Is the volume of semen inseminated at least 70 to 80 mL?
(a) Inseminating with an intrauterine catheter procedure
23 / Are sows heat-checked at least 1 hour prior to insemination?
24 / Are boars absent during the insemination process?
25 / Is a dose of semen delivered into the uterus by a bulk bag procedure?
26 / Is at least 35 mL of semen and at least 2.5 billion viable sperm deposited into the uterus?
27 / Are the sows exposed to boar stimuli after all sows have been inseminated?
3. Semen quality
28 / Do doses of semen contain less than 20% abnormal sperm cells and at least 70% motile sperm?
29 / Does the sow farm randomly evaluate doses of semen for motility at arrival and before use?
30 / Do doses of semen have a high concentration of bacteria?
31 / Does the sow farm have a third-party evaluate doses of semen?
32 / Are insemination doses stored at a temperature between 60.8 and 64.4 F prior to insemination?
33 / Has the on-farm semen cooler been checked to determine its accuracy in controlling temperature?
34 / Is temperature of semen cooler monitored and recorded daily?
35 / Are doses of semen rotated at least once daily and time of rotation recorded?
36 / Is all semen used within three to four days after collected?
37 / Is age of semen at time of use recorded?
38 / Is an appropriate semen extender used with respect to age of semen at time of use?
39 / Are at least 2 billion “viable” sperm cells used per dose when inseminating with traditional AI catheter and procedure?
4. Reproductive diseases and toxins
40 / Is the herd positive for Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus?
41 / Is the herd positive for other reproductive or non-reproductive diseases?
42 / Are sows routinely vaccinated for other diseases during the first 30 days of gestation?
43 / Does the gestation diet contain mycotoxins?
44 / Does drinking water for sows have high concentrations of minerals, heavy metals, or bacteria?
5. Housing and Environment
45 / Are the daily high temperatures in the breeding-gestation barn consistently greater than 80 degrees F?
46 / Are sows moved carefully from breeding barn to gestation crates or pens?
6. Genetics
47 / Are sows moved carefully from breeding barn to gestation crates or pens?
48 / Is number born alive for gilt-litters less than 7?
49 / Does number born alive routinely begin to decrease after parity 3?
Step 5: After the user clicks on “Is feed intake reduced during lactation?”, the following answer is presented to the user:
Poor feed intake causes loss of body tissue which affects ovulation rate and uterine recovery. These factors can lead to low numbers of embryos.
Inadequate feed intake is a major factor that delays recovery of the brain and uterus during lactation. Sows that lose increased amount of body condition during lactation have delayed weaning-to-estrus intervals; poor estrous responses; reduced ovulation rates; increased embryonic death loss; and low number of pigs born alive (Figure 1) [Aherne and Kirkwood, 1985; Cole, D.J.A. 1990].
It is critically important to get lactating sows on full-feed as soon as possible after farrowing. Table 1 is a suggested feeding strategy for lactating sows (DeRouchy et al., 2007). As indicated in Table 2, sows will eat a substantial amount of feed during the night (41%) when feed is available.
Table 1. Feeding strategy for lactating sows (DeRouchy et al., 2007)Feed provided at each feeding from day 0 to 2 of lactation, lb
Feed in feeder / Time of day feeding
AM / Noon / PM / Total
Empty / 4 / --- / 4 / 8
< 2 lbs / 0 / --- / 2 / 2
> 2 lbs / 0 / --- / 0 / 0
Feed in feeder
/ Feed provided at each feeding from day 2 of lactation to weaning, lbTime of day feeding
AM / Noon / PM / Total
Empty / 8 / 8 / 8 / 24
< 2 lbs / 4 / 4 / 8 / 16
> 2 lbs / 0 / 0 / 4 / 4
Table 2. Feed intake of multiparous sows when fed ad libitum from 7 to 21 days of lactation during summer (Howdyshell et al., 2007)
Time of day / Feed consumed, lbs / Percentage of total feed
6 PM to Midnight / 2.44 / 0.17
Midnight to 6 AM / 3.37 / 0.24
6 AM to Noon / 5.51 / 0.39
Noon to 6 PM / 2.76 / 0.20
Total: / 14.09 / 1.00
Room temperatures: Farm 1, 73.4 to 78.8 F; Farm 2, 73.4 to 87.8 F
Step 6. The user has the option of reviewing the list of references by clicking on a box called REFERENCES. If the reference box is clicked, the following information is presented.
Aherne, F.X. and Kirkwood, R.N. 1985. Nutrition and sow prolificacy. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement 33:169-183.
Cole, D.J.A. 1990. Nutritional strategies to optimize reproduction in pigs. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement 40:67-82.
DeRouchey J. M., Dritz S. S., Goodband R. D., Nelssen J. L., Tokach M. D. 2007. Breeding Herd Recommendations for Swine, KSU Swine Nutrition Guide, Kansas State University, October 2007. Accessed May 20, 2013.
Howdyshell R. E., Mahan D. C., Levis D. G. 2007. Determination of diurnal feed intake pattern of multiparous lactating sows when fed ad libitum. Journal of Animal Science 85 (Supplement 2):140 (Abstract 321).
Thaker M. Y. C., Bilkei G. 2005. Lactation weight loss influences subsequent reproductive performance of sows. Animal Reproduction Science 88:309-318.
Step 7. The user has the option of clicking the BACK button to return to the questions for this section or clicking a RETUN button to go to Step 3 to select other items related to low litter size.
The other questions related to mummies and stillborn piglets are indicated below.
QID / III. Factors influencing the number of mummies per litter50 / Is the percentage of mummies per litter 2.5% or more?
51 / Does the number of mummies increase as litter size increases above 10 piglets?
A. Reproductive diseases and toxins
52 / Is the herd positive for Parvovirus?
53 / Is the herd positive for Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRS)?
54 / Is the herd positive for other reproductive or non-reproductive diseases?
55 / Are sows routinely vaccinated for other diseases between days 35 and 100 of gestation?
56 / Does the gestation diet contain mycotoxins?
57 / Does drinking water for gilts have high concentrations of minerals, heavy metals, or bacteria?
B. Housing and environment
58 / Are the daily high temperatures in the breeding-gestation barn consistently greater than 80 degrees F?
59 / Are sows regrouped during gestation between days 35 and 100?
60 / Are sows moved from one gestation stall to another between days 35 and 100 of gestation?
61 / Are sows pregnancy checked with an ultrasound device between days 35 and 100 of gestation?
QID / IV. Factors influencing the number of stillborn piglets per litter
62 / Is the percentage of stillbirths per litter 7.5% or more?
63 / Does the number of stillborns increase as litter size increases above 10 piglets?
A. Gestation length andfarrowing process
64 / Are sows having gestation lengths less than 111 days?
65 / Are sows having gestation lengths greater than 120 days?
66 / Are sows being induced to farrow?
67 / Are sows being assisted during farrowing?
68 / Is the duration of farrowing longer than 2 hours in problem litters?
B. Housing and environment
69 / Are the daily high temperatures in the gestation and farrowing barn consistently greater than 80 degrees F?
70 / Does the ventilation rate in the farrowing barn prevent build-up of carbon monoxide from unvented heaters?
71 / Are sows carefully moved from the gestation barn to farrowing crates?
C. Reproductive disease and toxins
72 / Is the herd positive for Leptospirosis?
73 / Is the herd positive for Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRS)?
74 / Is the herd positive for other reproductive or non-reproductive diseases?
75 / Are sows routinely vaccinated for other diseases after day 100 of gestation?
76 / Does the gestation diet contain mycotoxins?
77 / Does drinking water for sows have high concentrations of minerals, heavy metals, or bacteria?
If the user wants to solve a problem with pre-weaning mortality of piglets, they would use the same procedure as previously shown. The questions presented to the user are indicated below.
Because of the numerous pages of questions for the other modules, the questions are not included in this paper.
Main theme: Sow Reproduction Problems
Topic: Pre-weaning Mortality of Piglets
Authors: Don Levis (Levis Worldwide Swine Consultancy), Tim Safranski (University of Missouri), and Rodney Baker (Iowa State University)
QID / I. Piglet mortality is high during farrowing and first 24 hours after birth.A. Sow care prior to farrowing
1 / Have sows been heat-stressed during the last two weeks of gestation?
2 / Have sows consumed feed containing mycotoxins during gestation?
3 / Have sows been provided ad libitum access to good quality water during gestation?
4 / Are sows too fat entering the farrowing facility?
5 / Are lame sows entering the farrowing facility?
6 / Are large sows entering the farrowing facility?
B. Day one pig care
7 / Has procedures for care of piglets during first day of life been carefully evaluated by caretakers?
8 / Are all caretakers motivated, supportive and complying with day 1 pig care protocol?
9 / Have appropriate supplies been put in container prior to arrival of first piglet?
10 / Has the number of functional nipples been recorded on sow card?
11 / Has the number of piglets weaned the previous litter been recorded on sow card?
12 / Are farrowing sows observed every 10 to 20 minutes?
13 / Are management activities recorded on sow card, i.e. oxytocin injection, piglets pulled, etc.?
14 / Are all piglets given special care during the first day after birth?
15 / Are newborn piglets dried with a drying compound or towel?
16 / Are newborn piglets placed in a heated (85 to 90 F) container for 15 to 20 minutes while drying?
17 / Is the time that piglets are placed in heated container recorded?
18 / After drying period are piglets placed by the udder and assisted with learning how to nurse?
19 / Do all piglets receive a "stomach-full" of colostrum?
20 / Are first born piglets marked and removed after stomach is full (within 2 hours of birth)?
21 / During first day, are weak/small piglets allowed to nurse for 90 minutes while largest piglets are kept in the hot box?
22 / Are weak/small piglets fed additional colostrum with a stomach tube?
23 / Is cross-fostering used when a sow gives birth to more piglets than she has functional nipples?
24 / Are cross-fostering procedures correctly accomplished?
25 / Is all cross-fostering completed within 18 hours after birth?