Challenges of an Urban World Revision Booklet

Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion (percentage) of people living in urban areas (towns and cities).

Global pattern of urbanisation

Describe the global pattern of urbanisation

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Factors that explain urbanisation

Factor / Explanation / Development
Rural to Urban migration
(people moving from the countryside into the city) / Push factors such as lack of jobs due to mechanisation in farming have forced people to leave rural areas in developing countries.
Natural disasters, for example coastal flooding on the Ganges delta in Bangladesh have forced people to migrate to Dhaka (the capital city) from rural areas.
Another push factor is lack of secondary and university education in rural areas so younger people are forced to move to urban areas.
Pull factors include higher wages in urban areas, for example in construction in Shanghai and in textile manufacture in Dhaka (Bangladesh). / This means that the proportion of people living in cities, especially in south and east Asia has increased.
High natural increase within urban areas / Where birth rates are higher than death rates in urban areas, population growth will occur contributing towards urbanisation. / This cause is greatest in the poorest countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa where birth rates, even in urban areas tend to be higher.

Contrast the economic activities, spatial growth and population of ‘megacities’ (cities with more than 10 million people) in the developed and developing world.

Economic Activities in Megacities

Developed City – London / Developing City – Dhaka, Bangladesh
High proportion of well-paid financial service sector jobs, for example in banks and insurance companies in the City and Canary Wharf. / High proportion of service sector jobs, but usually poorly paid in the informal sector. For example, rickshaw driving and rubbish collecting in the Korail Shanty Town in Dhaka.
Other service sector jobs include those in health and education, for example in universities, e.g. UCL in London. / Secondary jobs are more important, especially in construction and clothing manufacture for TNCs in Dhaka. For example, Gap makes clothes in Dhaka.
Many low paid service sector jobs, for example in cleaning and street cleaning, tend to go to migrant workers – often from Eastern Europe within the EU, e.g. Poland. / In the centre of the city there are many government jobs and also banking jobs.

Exam Question June 2014

Contrast the economic activities of megacities in the developed and developing worlds. (8 marks).

Social and Environmental impacts / challenges caused by the growth of megacities

London

As London is a relatively densely populated city its carbon footprint is low in comparison to many cities, especially in North America and Australia which tend to be more suburban. However, it is still higher than European and Asian cities.

Transport is still an issue even with a highly developed tube network. Nitrous oxide is emitted by car engines and pollutes the local air quality, for example along Green Lane in Haringey and also the A1 . / This is important because poor quality air is thought to cause lung problems and asthma in children.
Waste is an issue in London and is disposed of by local councils. Despite many recycling campaigns, for example, by Haringey Council, too much waste goes to landfill – especially food waste which can be composted or used in biofuel. Currently 45% of waste is recycled (up from 8% in 2000). / This is important because decomposition in landfill sites releases methane which is a powerful greenhouse gas.
Housing is a social issue in London. The cost of housing has increased rapidly and workers cannot afford housing in Inner London boroughs, e.g. Islington. / This is important because homelessness may increase and also hospitals may find it difficult to recruit nurses in Inner London.
Energy is an environmental issue. Londoners produce around 6 tonnes of carbon dioxide per person per year. This has decreased by 11% since the year 2000, but is still an issue. / Important because it contributes to the greenhouse effect.

Dhaka

Socially, poor quality shanty town housing made of re-used materials like corrugated metal and old concrete blocks is a big issue as it is cramped (sometimes 8 people to a room) and. For example, the Korail slum in Dhaka. / This leads to the shanty town being highly vulnerable to fire – a key hazard in the slum.
Environmentally, in the Korail Slum in Dhaka sanitation is the biggest problem. Toilets are placed over Lake Banani and results in water polluted with bacteria from raw sewage. / This is important because people get ill from the water and are less able to work or go to school.
Socially, education is a problem in the Korail shanty town. In the primary school facilities are limited and class sizes large. However, the main problem is attendance, as families are poor children work on the streets often selling or collecting rubbish. / This means that literacy rates are low which limits the ability of the children to get a skilled and better paid job in the future.
Environmentally, air quality is a problem. Stoves used to cook release fumes into houses and low quality two stroke engines in rickshaws release soot nitrous oxide into the air. / This impacts on people’s health, especially lung problems.

Exam Question

Contrast the social and environmental issues of megacities in the developed and developing worlds. (8 marks).

In this question you need to contrast the social issues (probably housing) then move to contrasting the environmental issues (probably air and water quality).
Show evaluation through phrases like
However… greater issue than in…… less than…………..
In contrast… similarly….

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Evaluative conclusion – which faces the greater issues?

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Strategies used to improve quality of life in megacities

Developed World City – London

Issue / Strategy / Success
Transport
Traffic congestion has been a major problem in Inner London reducing the effectiveness of buses and also causing local air pollution, for example high nitrous oxide levels on roads like Oxford Street. / The congestion charge was implemented in 2003 where vehicles are charged £11.50 to dive into the central zone. This has been recently strengthened through low emission zones where highly polluting vehicles are not allowed to enter. / It is estimated congestion levels have decreased have around a third in the centre. However, outside of this congestion is a massive issue. The money collected has been invested in buses which are now more frequent and also cleaner (using hybrid technology). The eco-footprint of Londoners is much lower than other UK cities due to higher use of public transport.
There is still great concern about air quality in London, especially from diesel engines along congested main roads, for example, Green Lanes in Haringey.
Waste
Too much waste is going to landfill sites in Essex where capacity is running out and also decomposing rubbish releases methane. / London has a target of reaching 50% recycling of waste by 2020. This is through provision of household recycling bins and also education campaigns. Businesses are charged extra for non-recyclable waste. / The figure stands at 45% but has remained constant in the last 2 years so currently 50% target is unlikely to be achieved.
Additionally, less food waste is being composted / used as biofuel from London than elsewhere. This is probably because of the large number of flats making it more difficult to achieve recycling targets.
Other strategies
Boris bikes
Cycle Lanes
More solar panels
Reducing sewage released into Thames at times of heavy rain.

Evaluation

London’s policies successful in reducing eco footprint (currently estimated at 4.5 gha (global hectares per person), especially in comparison to other UK cities. However, local air quality on main roads is still a big problem. London still needs an area 200 times its size to provide food, water, energy and air to support it.

Waste policies for general recycling working, but key exception is food waste which remains high. All of these strategies are top down, perhaps bottom up local re-using / recycling strategies might be more successful.

Developing World City – Dhaka

Issue / Strategy / Success
Transport
Congestion and air pollution from low quality two stroke engines was a huge problem. / Older two stoke engine rickshaws made illegal by Dhaka City Government - so taken off the road in city centre. A top down scheme.
Rickshaw free corridors designed to speed up buses. / Air quality slightly improved.
Has reduced key bus journey times by 30%.
However, source of income for people relying on informal economy taken away.
Water Supply and Sanitation
Old hanging toilets over the Banani Lake. Very poor sanitation – resulted in a lot of bacterial illness and parasite infections. / The Urban Partnership for Poverty Reduction began in Korail in 2010, with funding from the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and British overseas aid. This funded the building of new concrete toilets with proper sewage disposal.
Every 20 households banded together to form a "primary group" of stakeholders, with elected representatives of each of these groups forming community development communities. / Stakeholders are mostly women who have taken a lead with development in the Korail slum. They have reported fewer illnesses, especially in children and fewer trips to the doctor. Sewage no longer runs into the lake improving water quality.
Successful example of bottom up development led by local groups.

Evaluation

The bottom up development probably more successful as it was locally led and also improved long term prospects for development, especially through more children going to school.

Exam Question June 2015

Examine the success of strategies used to improve the quality of life in cities in the developing world. (8)

Discuss what you consider are the best parts of this answer. Highlight phrases that show evaluation.

Exam Question

Examine the success of strategies used by a developed world city to reduce its eco footprint. (8 marks)

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