Negotiating for Change: The role of Landcare in facilitating community level governance of natural resources

Joseph Tanui1, Dr. Diane Russell2 & Francis Alinyo3

1ICRAF /AHI P.O.BOX 26416, KampalaUganda, email:

2 USAID, WashingtonDC, Email:

3ACTION AID P.O. BOX 47Kapchorwa, Uganda, email:

Abstract

Initiatives towards the improvement of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in Sub-Saharan Africa have illuminated weak institutions and inadequate institutional arrangements. The paper describes the Conservation and livelihood initiatives in Uganda, where land degradation is evidenced by soil erosion, declining soil fertility, low yields and increasing incidences of landslides. The consequence of land fragmentation on the livelihoods of an increasing population further exacerbates natural resource exploitation. The paper describes the process undertaken in the adoption of the Landcare approach. It illustrates the role of Landcare in facilitating a local level by law reform process. Through two case studies on local multi-stakeholder development and on local bylaw reforms the paper examines the role of the Landcare approach in tackling specific high priority issues and the implication of the resultant outcomes. It describes the development of the AGILE process which was holistic, involved various community groupings who felt they owned the process, and were empowered enough to not only seek assistance from government but also influence local level policy reforms to address their circumstances.

Key words: African Landcare, culture, livelihoods, landscapes, institutions, Collective action

Introduction

There are a number of methodological and policy constraints in the positioning of integrated natural resource management as an effective means for alleviating poverty while maintaining the integrity of the environment. The complexity, multidimensionality and uncertainty in agricultural systems, are evident in visible land use and settlement patterns. Land use, and more specifically agricultural land use, can be viewed in temporal and spatial contexts as a melting pot of paradigms of expansion and intensification, productivity and exploitation, common use and protectionism, and competing interests and power games. This situation, dynamic and changing fast, further complicates perceptions of sustainability, development and conservation.

The paper recounts natural resources management initiatives in East Africa, and retrospectively describes some of the conservation and livelihoods challenges in Uganda, in areas where land degradation is evidenced by soil erosion, declining soil fertility, low yields and increasing incidences of landslides. It describes the process undertaken in the adoption of the Landcare approach, illustrating the African Grassroots Innovation for Livelihoods and the Environment (AGILE) concept used to inculcate and disseminate Landcare ideals amongst communities. Through case studies the paper examines the role of the Landcare approach in promoting equitable collective action and promoting sustainable livelihoods and conservation process. The paper gives a background of natural resource management challenges, describing the break down of environmental governance over time. Through literature review it describes the context of land degradation in Uganda and the possible role of collective action in developing sustainable solutions. After a methodological overview of the Landcare approach development, a series of case studies are presented to illustrate its value and role in fostering collective action in natural resource management. The paper concludes by highlighting emerging lessons and suggests scaling up mechanisms of good practices.

Background

The East African highlands constitute about 23% of the total landmass in the region and yet inhabit more than 50% of the population. The highlands are characterized by medium to high agricultural potential. Population densities are already relatively very high (100-200 people per Km2 having risen over the last fifty years resulting to critically small, often fragmented farms reaching 0.25 to 1.0 ha for an average family of six ( AHI 1998).

The diminishing natural resource base resulting from a declining ability to maintain and improve soil fertility and erosion control; intensify livestock feed and nutrient management systems; decrease in social cohesion; unresponsive and at times perverse policy processes; inadequate markets; poor input and credit supply and low local wage rates are indicated by decreasing yields, lower incomes, fewer options for diversification, increased pests and disease incidences and a diminishing ability to cope ( AHI, 2001).

NR governance in Eastern Africa

The governance of natural resources in Sub-Saharan Africa and more specifically in the Eastern Africa highlands can be better understood from an evolutionary standpoint. The dawn of the 19th Century saw the ‘discovery’ and subsequent colonization of Africa, the emergence of nations as they are today, away from discrete independent ethnic entities that had hitherto existed. There followed rapid urbanization, the integration of different communities and a marked increase in population.Early farming societies had developed mechanisms for coping with risk and uncertainty, where population pressure was managed with land productivity and the margins were sufficient to allow for continued investment in collective solutions and high enough to induce and maintain institutions that prevented “tragedies of the commons”. These institutions enshrined in ethnic cultures and norms ensured a system akin to Boserup’s model (Boserup, 1965) where adversity whether in form of higher population growth, or other challenges induced farmer innovation leading to sustainable agriculture intensification where applicable.In this regard the unprecedented rate of population growth given the population-environment-poverty nexus (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994) was concluded by Lele and Stone (1989) to have prevented the timely adjustment of farmers to increasing cropping frequencies or stocking densities as postulated by Boserup’s theory of agricultural intensification.

The advent of colonial and post-colonial periods saw the systematic de-legitimization of traditional institutions and systems of governance, and the imposition of the western legal system. The improved population growth brought about by extension of modern healthcare resulted in declines in child mortality rates, the introduction of the monetary economy creating an impetus for the liquidation of community level assets, mining of natural resources and the subsequent land pressure triggered a Malthusian type crisis. The pathway described by the society was that of unsustainable intensification and institutional breakdown. The governance breakdown is accentuated by a modern legal system where policies are developed at national level, but local level enforcement runs against social principles and often undermines livelihoods. The traditional systems are weak and suffer from legitimacy crisis amongst communities, with the tendency towards individual and public property away from communal ownership.

Figure1: Perceived trends in ‘modernization’ and governance, Lushoto, Tanzania (L. German et al, 2005)

Figure 1 illustrates the breakdown of governance of natural resources through five factors. Whereas literacy levels, adherence to modern religions and the perception of communities of the importance of government laws, were on the rise between 1930 to 2003 in Lushoto (an area typical to all Eastern Africa highlands), the importance of the customary norms that used to maintain societies were diminishing and the adherence to norms and bye-laws also had a negative trend therefore creating governance gaps. These lacunae may be seen to reduce the pay-off for collective solutions and therefore encourage free riding and eventual conflicts.

Research and development approaches for natural resource management

In eastern Africa, conventional approaches to agricultural research and development have not only emphasized production over livelihoods and short-term economic gain over sustainability but have reductionist tendencies resulting in institutions specializing in either production or conservation. This structural constraint clearly reduces chances for innovation and market development that would stimulate investments. Further, examples from studies on the adoption of sustainable practices and advanced farming systems have found that the adoption of these technologies has rarely met the point of rapid diffusion because of imperfect information, capital, and/or income constraints, market failures and other reasons(Caviglia, J. & Kahn, J. 2001).

In the case ofUganda it was evident that although soils were once considered to be among the most fertile in the tropics (Chanery, 1960) problems of soil nutrient depletion, erosion and other manifestation of land degradation appear to be increasing. The rate of soil nutrient depletion is amongst the highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (Stoorvogel and Smaling 1990) and soil erosion is a serious problem especially in highland areas (Bagoora, 1998). Farmers’ yields are typically less than one-third of potential yields found on research stations. Most major crops have been stagnant or declining since the early 1990s (Pender et al 2004, Deninger and Okidi, 2001). This notwithstanding, there has been a phenomenal changes in Uganda’s farming since the mid 1980’s. These include adoption of non-traditional crops, abandonment of shifting cultivation and development of new-off farm money generating activities such as charcoal burning. A special feature of Uganda’s Poverty Eradication Plan (PEAP) is the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA) which seeks to implement radical changes in the delivery of services to farmers (Uganda2000a). Through the National Agricultural Advisory Services program (Uganda 2000b) an overhaul of the extension system was initiated. In the beginning of the National Agriculture Advisory Services (NAADS) Programme the Natural Resource Management component was not clearly articulated , but this was later developed (AHI 2005).

In the development of effective approaches for natural resource management, the dynamic nature of social economic, political factors suggest a need to allow for flexible policies that can be revised at the local level and according to current conditions (P.Jagger & J. Pender 2001). The development of the African grassroots innovation for livelihood (AGILE) concept for the introduction of Landcare in East Africa and specifically in Uganda has made inroads in facilitating institutional arrangements, which empower local level communities in decision making as a prerequisite for land development and conservation.AGILE is an approach that integrates the Landcare experience from elsewhere into the East African setting, drawing on knowledge of African institutions, technologies and enabling policies. The aim is to “scale up” African grassroots innovations in technology, natural resource management, policy reform and livelihood while not losing their relevance to local needs.Landcareis inferred to as a method that rapidly and inexpensively diffuses Agroforestry and other technical practices related to NRM and livelihoods among thousands of farmers (Garrity et al 1998). Further, Landcare is alsoviewed as a movement led by the grassroots to foster improved livelihoods and environment and spreads through social energies of individuals, communities and supporters.

Methodology

Case Studies

The case studies illustrates the facilitative role of the Landcare approach in developing a knowledge-based system of natural resource management with a focus on human and social capital for long term broader benefits, sustainability, self-sufficiency and voluntarism. Through the Landcare process capacity is being developed to enable community member’s participation in developing agendas that touch on their well-being. The first of the two cases described illustrate community level multi-stakeholder development process, undertaken to empower marginalized communities negotiate for their inclusion in protected area management, while the second case examines the role of Landcare in facilitating collective action for conflict resolution in watershed management. The case studies are based in two sites in Kapchorwa district in eastern Uganda.

Study process

The case study research process involved a multi-level action research and learning process (Figure 2).The study was carried out in two key stages, which involved an initial scoping study / situation analysis and feedback stage, followed by an action research process.The initial scoping study involved historical trends analysis, population trends analysis, focus groups discussion, key informants interviews, institutional analysis), trends in forests / reserve areas, food security, incomes trends, production trends. The purpose of the situation analysis was to understand resource distribution within the community categories and the role of internal and external institutions in enhancing or constraining resource access and decision making. Thereafter site and national level workshops were held to share the findings and to develop objectives for the action research stage of the study.

The action research stage involvedlocal – level learning and testing of approaches that foster collective solutions for natural resource management. The main process of which was a facilitative community institution development process, geared towards fostering collective action for sustainable landscape level natural resource governance. Further, this stage endeavored to fully involve the various state governance apparatus at all the relevant levels, starting from local, district and national, (this was imperative especially since the study ecosystem area transcends more than one district).

Figure 2: Action research and learning process

Case study 1

Empowering communities to negotiate their inclusion in protected area management and benefit sharing.

Case overview

Kapchorwa district has several institutions engaged in offering services that enable poor resource farmers/marginalized groups the right to proper land use management, access and control. These institutions broadly include local government departments of production, NGOs, CBOs and research organizations. There is a growing clamor for a forum that brings together stakeholders engaged in land use, access and control has been voiced. This has been as a result of repeated failed attempts creating frustrations as communities fail to fulfill raised expectations. There are critical issues affecting access, control and use of land by the poor and marginalized sections of the community and more specifically the Benet community that traditionally lived in the protected area and majority of whom are currently internally displaced. These include:

  • Inadequate information among stakeholders especially the Benet community in regard to access and sharing.
  • Inadequate participation of the poor and civil society organizations in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of site and district level policies and programs
  • Lack of pro-poor policies. The creation of the protected area (Mt Elgon national park) did not consider the plight of the Benet community (forest dwellers) many of whom were therefore disfranchised.
  • Inadequate capacities among stakeholders to critically analyze land situations and therefore design appropriate interventions and assessment mechanisms.
  • Poor bargaining position for the Benet and hence their inability to lobby for their inalienable rights.
  • Imposition of protected area boundary and expulsion of the Benet from Mt. Elgon National Park
  • Shifts in livelihood strategies; land pressure in buffer zone; break-down in communication between communities and conservation agencies / policies.

Steps in participatory action research

  • Situation analysis and AI approach identified livelihoods in decline prior efforts were unsuccessful due to failure to address policy issues
  • Exploration of situation noting the contradiction between national policies and local-level implementation
  • Carried out a visioning and consensus-building around future desired state, assuming bottom line of protected area with high biodiversity (a pre-condition to negotiations)
  • Negotiating agendas between Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) and community representatives on possibilities for co-management:

Issues of discussion and identified opportunities

The issues identified to be of high priority in the discussion included

  • Boundary demarcation
  • Access & use to park resources
  • Local UWA-community conflict
  • Illegal logging with blame placed on land clearing for agriculture
  • Physical and even sexual abuse for women caught in the Park by the low cadre rangers who police the park

Opportunities articulated included the following:

  • Co-management policy from UWA reinforcing community claim
  • Opportunities for increased forest protection through greater local involvement (re-definition of “custodians” of the forest)
  • Collective action a pre-condition for eliminating scapegoats used by guards
  • Common interests by communities & national UWA

Emerging Outcomes:

  1. Dialogue between UWA and Benet communities has been re-established
  2. Local government involvement in seeking livelihood opportunities and investment through co-management
  3. Both sides see opportunities (livelihoods, conservation) through re-definition of custodianship (UWA ,community ,local government)
  4. Equity focus of Participatory Action Research (PAR) has enabled local interest in income generation among most marginalized groups (i.e. apiaries for women)

Emerging Lessons:

  1. Opportunities exist for fostering co-management arrangements that are more effective for conservation and livelihood, but are hindered by poor knowledge of policies, and history of break-down in communication with UWA (horizontal & vertical)
  2. PAR enables negotiation of a common vision from apparently intractable points of difference, and identification of clear synergies in the roles of different actors in bringing about change

Case study 2

Enabling negotiation and conflict resolution through collective action in “Tuikat watershed”

Case overview

An increasing population, increased land fragmentation and soil erosion have put a very big strain on the productivity land in Kapchorwa. An eroding cultural fabric has had the negative effect of removing cultural safeguards on land that dictated sustainable utilization of natural resources. The land market has equally contributed in further degradation through presence of absentee landlords, while the leasing of land was a disincentive to investments in Land management. In the Tuikat watershed seasonal changes in tenure arrangements, grazing rights, unclear property rights, sharp differences between conservation farmers and non conservation oriented farmers has created a very unhealthy conflict. This conflict endures as every putting on hold any meaningful measures towards area wide conservation planning and prudent management of the watershed.