Chapter 20
Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Unlike the growing interaction that marked the African, Asian, and European worlds, the Americas and Oceania remained largely isolated. Any contact before 1492 was more accidental and momentary than planned or continuous. Nevertheless, the peoples of North and South America created large empires with cultural and religious concepts that, because of the isolation of these societies, were unique. The societies of Oceania existed in even greater isolation. Despite this isolated existence, the peoples of Oceania eventually developed structured agricultural societies and chiefly political structures.
THEMES
Although isolated from the eastern hemisphere, and without complex metallurgy or transportation technology, peoples in the Americas and Oceania developed complex, hierarchical societies and elaborate trade networks stretching over thousands of miles. By the late postclassical period, two lake-based cultures, the Aztecs—or Mexica—in Mesoamerica and the Incas in South America succeeded in establishing large, heavily-populated imperial states led by warrior aristocracies and priestly elites. In Oceania, self-sufficient chiefly states predominated, particularly in Hawai`i and Tonga. The peoples of both the Americas and Oceania developed complex religious belief systems closely tied to the surrounding natural environment. Americans and Pacific island peoples developed complex agricultural societies that generated impressive agricultural productivity, leading to social stratification and rapid population growth by the late postclassical period.
LECTURE STRATEGIES
Exploring Aztec (Mexica) Ritual Bloodletting and Human Sacrifice
Students always find the topic of Aztec ritual bloodletting and human sacrifice fascinating. Start with the expansion of the great temple in 1487 and the eighty thousand victims who were supposedly sacrificed. Once again, some passages from Bernal Díaz del Castillo are worth using. While you may draw the students in through the spectacle (or sheer grisly brutality) of the ceremony, you can then move on to more profound subjects. Anthropologists speculate that human sacrifice has been a common practice at various times around the world. Discuss the reasons for and implications of human sacrifice and its deeper significance. From here you can move on to examine why the Aztecs carried out this practice on a scale unmatched anyplace else in the world. What does this say about the Aztec political and social worlds? How might this practice explain the Aztec successes but also foreshadow their failures? Draw in examples from other societies covered earlier in the class. Use this topic to also lead to a more general discussion of the religious beliefs of these societies, including the Inca. The distinct moral aspects of Inca religion make an interesting and useful comparison that can spark discussion. Was one really more moral than the other?
The Indian Tribes of North America
The Indian tribes of North America make for a great lecture, and one that is much needed in a world civilization course. Most world civilization textbooks and instructors assume that these societies are being covered in American history courses. Unfortunately, too often these tribes receive little or no coverage in American history classes and textbooks. In fact, most students find these tribes fascinating and want to know more about them. A world civilization course is
a great place to tackle the subject because it gives the students a chance to understand these peoples divorced from their relationship to early colonial or United States history. Plus, the complexity and diversity of these tribes makes it difficult for the students to understand them on their own, and rightly so. Tying all the societies of North America into one lecture is a demanding task, but one well worth undertaking. Even a focus on one area can be worthwhile, and it will lead you to some useful comparisons.
The Societies of Oceania
Certainly the same argument could be made about the societies of Oceania. Only recently have some world civilization textbooks begun to tackle the subject. Bentley and Ziegler do more with the subject than any other world civilization textbook. The history of Oceania is a complex subject that deserves some class time. It can be a natural tie-in to the discussion of the Americas because of the same issue of isolation, both in regard to the resulting uniqueness of the societies and the concomitant danger of infectious disease. It would be profitable for the students to have at least a passing understanding of these societies before you introduce the European age of exploration.
Comparing the Political Development of the Aztecs and Incas
Compare and contrast the political development of the Aztecs and Incas. These were the two most powerful states of the pre-Columbian American world and it would certainly benefit the students to understand how these empires worked. Was one of them more stable than the other? Are there certain essential weaknesses that will help to explain their later collapse? How do they relate to other societies covered so far in the class? This topic can then be used to launch into a discussion of why the North American Indian tribes never came together in states as powerful as those of the Aztecs and Incas. What are the prerequisites for a powerful state?
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Case Study: Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Tenochtitlan
A great place to begin a discussion would be to draw examples from Bernal Díaz del Castillo, starting with the introductory section in the chapter. Ask the students to consider Bernal Díaz del Castillo’s statement, “And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream,” which may help the students to understand the grandeur of Tenochtitlan. Most students come into a world civilization course with a Eurocentric view of history and have no idea that Tenochtitlan was much larger and more impressive than anything the Europeans had experienced. You might also compare Bernal Díaz del Castillo’s account to some passages from Marco Polo’s description of China. Allow the students to discover through their own discussion and inquiry that even by these late dates the Europeans were still struggling to catch up to many of the other societies of the world. It also opens up the question for later discussion of why the Europeans were the ones making these journeys of exploration and not the other way around.
Understanding Aztec Society
Divide students into small groups. Each group will represent a cross-section of Aztec society. Have them decide who will be: a priest to Huitzilopochtli, an Aztec warrior, a chinampa farmer, a warrior’s mother, a goldsmith, a merchant/trader, and a slave assigned to public works. They then determine what each one contributes to the prosperity and preservation of the empire and come to the next class prepared to convince the rest of their group that they are the most valuable member of Mexica society.
Complex Societies without Written Languages
Both North American and Inca cultures have left behind no recognizable writing system, yet as the archaeological discoveries at places like Cahokia and Cuzco show, both managed to create highly complex and stratified societies, economies, and religious belief systems within highly urbanized environments. Historians naturally emphasize the importance of written script as a foundation of civilization, yet these and other examples suggest that perhaps this emphasis is overblown. Encourage the students to consider why these non-literate cultures were so successful despite the absence of literacy, and suggest alternative sources of cultural unity and strength that took the place of written language.
Comparing the Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Aztecs and Incas
Ask the students to compare and contrast the religious beliefs and practices of the Aztecs and Incas. In what ways did these beliefs provide a sense of divine protection? In what ways were the Aztecs influenced by earlier Mesoamerican societies? Remind the students of concepts discussed in earlier chapters about Central and South America. Ask the students to compare and contrast these concepts to other religions studied in the class. What would the preservation of the Inca mummies, for example, tell us about the Inca view of life and death in light of the Egyptian experience? Have the students seen other examples of human sacrifice? If they have, why wasn’t it carried out on the scale of the Aztecs? Are there other examples of societies that, like the Inca, believed in the divinity of the emperor? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this view?
The Implications of the Isolation of the Societies of the Americas and Oceania
Ask the students to consider the implications of the isolation of the societies of the Americas and Oceania. The students should be able to understand how isolation made these societies unique. At the same time, they must understand the danger that infectious diseases would later present for an isolated society. This knowledge will help set up the eventual discussion of the arrival of the Europeans. One of the questions that students always ask is why the Incas weren’t better prepared to face the Spanish after the Aztecs had already fallen. They are always amazed to discover that not only did the Incas not know the Aztecs had fallen, but they didn’t even know that the Aztecs existed. Inside this discussion of isolation you can also examine the ways in which some societies were able to influence each other in limited ways. The influence of the Olmecs, Teotihuacan, Maya, and Toltecs on the Aztecs is an obvious example. Ask the students why we have fewer examples of this type of interchange among the societies of Oceania.
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