Virginia Review of Asian Studies
STEPS TOWARDS CHANGE: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF NICHIREN BUDDHISTS IN NEW ZEALAND AND THEIR EXPERIENCES OF PERSONAL TRANSFORMATION
VIKKI BAIRD
AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (AUT)
In collaboration with Dr. Mark Thorpe (AUT) and with additional thanks to Dr. Chris Krägeloh (AUT)
Editor’s Note: This article is the further development of Vikki Baird’s Honour’s year Thesis concerning her in-depth research on Soka Gakkai International in New Zealand. Ms. Baird has edited her thesis for publication here as an article. VRAS has retained her use of British spelling.
Abstract
Buddhism is a religion which is growing in popularity in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2010) and around the world (Bluck, 2006; Métraux, 2010; Seager, 1999). It is also an increasing topic of interest within psychology and the health sciences literature. Buddhist meditation techniques have been linked with many positive physical and psychological health benefits (Baer, 2003; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). Much of the research in this area has been quantitative in approach and has narrowly focused on a few select Buddhist practices whilst ignoring others.
The present research aims to look at personal transformation in the lives of Nichiren Buddhists practicing in New Zealand who are members of Soka Gakkai International (SGI). Within SGI, personal transformation is referred to as human revolution (Soka Gakkai International, 2011), which can be described as an accelerated and profound change within the individual's life. It is this focus on accelerated and profound change that makes research on SGI such an important topic of interest. Previous research on SGI in particular has focused mainly on demographic details, member characteristics and the growth patterns of the organisation in countries such as Malaysia, U.K., Australia, U.S.A. and Canada (Métraux, 2010). The aim of this study was to investigate Nichiren Buddhists’ experiences of personal transformation and to explore any common themes which were present in these experiences. Five respondents were interviewed in depth and the resulting data was analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis model to determine the common themes relating to personal transformation. Three common themes were discovered, these were: 1) Tapping into Buddhahood, 2) Activating the Energy Engine and 3) Realising a Wonderful Interconnectedness.
“A great human revolution in just a single individual will help achieve a change in the destiny of a nation and, further, will enable a change in the destiny of all humankind.”
(Ikeda, 2004a, p. viii)
Chapter One: Introduction
Aim
This study aims to investigate Nichiren Buddhists experiences of personal transformation and to explore any common themes that are present in these experiences. Using thematic analysis, guided by a realist/essentialist theoretical approach, the study will seek to expand knowledge of this particular Buddhist movement. It will also investigate whether there are any common themes in Nichiren Buddhists’ transformation experiences which are congruent with the current literature on change and transformation, or indeed if there are any aspects of Nichiren Buddhists’ transformation experiences which could further inform current therapeutic practices.
Issue and context
Buddhism is a religion that is growing in popularity in New Zealand and in many other western countries. In the 1996 New Zealand census, 28,131 people indicated their religion as Buddhist and that number has steadily increased to 52,362 people in the 2006 census. Buddhism is the third most common religion in New Zealand after Christianity and Hinduism (Statistics New Zealand, 2010). Soka Gakkai International New Zealand (SGINZ) has approximately 1500 members and is the main lay organisation[1] for practicing Nichiren Buddhism in this country. Although still a relatively small movement in New Zealand, globally the Soka Gakkai International (SGI) has approximately 12 million members in over 190 countries (Soka Gakkai International, 2010). However, considering the size in membership of such a worldwide organization, very little research has been conducted about Nichiren Buddhism in the context of psychology. Research has shown that the membership of SGI organisations in various countries throughout the world is a multicultural mix and the growth of SGI as a worldwide Buddhist organisation has been put down to its success in appealing to a wide variety of people from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds (Wilson & Dobbelaere, 1994). Within SGI there is a strong focus on personal transformation; this personal transformation is referred to as ‘human revolution’ (Soka Gakkai International, 2011) and is an essential part of the daily practice of SGI members. It is this focus on personal transformation and inner change within the individual that makes research on SGI a relevant topic of study within the psychology literature.
Methodology
The nature of a topic such as personal transformation, which is multifaceted and complex (Wade, 1998), points to the use of a qualitative research design in order to allow for in depth exploration of the subject matter (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Taking into consideration the personal and experiential nature of the subject matter, individual semi-structured interviews were considered to be the most appropriate method of data collection. The research question, which asks; ‘what are the central themes which can be found in Nichiren Buddhists experiences of personal transformation?’, points to the use of thematic analysis, since this is an approach which can be used to identify themes and patterns of living (Aronson, 1994). A realistic/essentialist theoretical approach was chosen as it was felt that since this was the primary researcher’s first study in this area, it was desirable to stay as close to the data as possible and to produce a report which highlighted the essence of the personal transformation experiences for the participants.
Chapter Two: Literature review
The researcher wishes to make clear at this point that her knowledge lies within the area of Nichiren Buddhism and therefore the literature focuses on this particular Buddhist tradition as opposed to other Buddhist schools and theories. It is also important to clarify that the terms SGI and Nichiren Buddhism shall be used interchangeably throughout this paper. When discussing Nichiren Buddhism it should be noted that the author is referring to Nichiren Buddhism as it is practiced and understood within SGI.
History of Buddhism
Buddhism originated in India approximately 2,500 years ago with Siddhartha Gautama who was a prince of the Shakya clan. Gautama embarked on a quest to find spiritual enlightenment, and after participating in numerous austere and demanding practices, it is reported that he found enlightenment while meditating under an ancient fig tree known in Buddhist legend as the Bodhi Tree (Bankart, Dockett, & Dudley-Grant, 2003). It was subsequent to this event that Gautama became known as Shakyamuni which can be translated as ‘sage of the Shakyas’. Following Shakyamuni’s attainment of enlightenment, he travelled throughout India spreading his teachings to numerous followers. Those disciples in turn, spread the teachings southward into Southeast Asia and eastward into Tibet, Korea, China and Japan (Bankart et al., 2003). The Buddhism which spread to Southeast Asia was to become known as Hinayana[2] (the lesser vehicle) or Theravada (the way of the elders). The Buddhism which spread through into Japan became known as Mahayana[3] (the greater vehicle). As time progressed, a varying range of sects developed within these two main streams of Buddhist teachings.
Within Mahayana Buddhism, Chih-I (538-597) was one of the original scholars in China who extensively studied the Buddha’s teachings; he developed his own school of Buddhism called the T’ien-t’ai school which practiced based on the Lotus Sutra. This movement was then introduced to Japan by Dengyo Daishi (Saicho; 767-822) who was a Japanese scholar and monk; he developed the Tendai school in Japan based upon the teachings of the T’ien-t’ai school. During these times there were various other schools of Buddhism in Japan, the main ones being Nembutsu, Pure Land, True Word and Zen schools which based their practice on pre Lotus Sutra teachings.
Nichiren Buddhism has developed from the Mahayana stream of teachings and bases itself on the teachings of Nichiren (1222-1282)[4], a thirteenth century Japanese monk and scholar who founded Japan’s only native school of Buddhism. Nichiren studied many of the Buddhist scriptures and writings of the time, including the writings from the T’ien-tai school in China and the Tendai school in Japan. He concluded that the Lotus Sutra was the highest and most important teaching of the Buddha, since in the beginning of this Sutra, the Buddha directs his followers to disregard his previous teachings explaining that these were expedient means; “For those of dull capacities who delight in a little law…for these I preach nirvana, I devise these expedient means” (Watson, 1993, p. 34). Directly following this the Buddha introduces the path of the one Great Vehicle in which all people can attain the Buddha way; “Up until now I have never told you, that you were certain to attain the Buddha way. The reason I never preached in that manner, was that the time to preach so had not yet come. But now is the very time, when I must decisively preach the Great Vehicle” (Watson, 1993, p. 34). Nichiren, in his desire to enable all people to access this one Great Vehicle, developed a practice which involved chanting the title of the Lotus Sutra repeatedly[5], a practice which any lay person could do, without having to go to a temple or become a priest, in order to gain enlightenment. Nichiren believed that rather than having to wait for future lifetimes, all people could gain enlightenment in the present moment through chanting, ‘Nam Myoho Renge Kyo’[6].
The form of Nichiren Buddhism practiced today by the Soka Gakkai stems from Nichiren Shu, the “orthodox” sect of Nichiren Buddhism.
History and Philosophy of SGI
The Soka Gakkai was founded in 1930 by Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871-1944) who was a Japanese educator and scholar; it began mainly as a group of educators who were keenly interested in social reform of the education system at that time. However, as Makiguchi became more involved with Nichiren Buddhism, the organisation developed into a religious and social movement. During the Second World War, the Japanese government arrested Makiguchi and his closest supporter Josei Toda (1900-1958) as thought criminals in 1943 and in 1944 Makiguchi died in prison. Josei Toda was released after the war and from there Soka Gakkai developed rapidly in Japan as a social and religious movement that promoted the concept of self-empowerment and happiness for all.
Toda developed the term ‘human revolution’ to express the central idea that all people could attain enlightenment[7] in their lifetime and manifest their full potential as accomplished and happy individuals capable of creating value in their own lives and in society. After Toda’s death, his closest supporter Daisaku Ikeda (1928-- ) became president of the organisation in 1960. From this point on, Ikeda further developed the organisation into a global socially engaged Buddhist movement that concerned itself with all spheres of life, particularly peace, culture and education. SGI (Soka Gakkai International) was founded in 1975 on the island of Guam, and since then it has spread to 192 countries and territories throughout the world (Soka Gakkai International, 2010). Soka Gakkai was initially associated with the Nichiren school, however, in the early 1990s a split between the two groups meant that SGI was excommunicated from the Nichiren School. From that point on SGI became an independent lay Buddhist organisation.
Nichiren Buddhism as it is practiced within SGI differs from other kinds of Buddhist practices in the sense that its philosophy is strongly pragmatic, and its means of salvation are more accessible and immediate (Dawson, 2001). There is also a strong focus on transformation and grappling with life’s daily challenges rather than accepting or letting go. Furthermore, Nichiren Buddhism does not promote the idea of Nirvana, nor does it describe enlightenment as the absence of suffering. Enlightenment for SGI members involves the cultivation of wisdom, courage and compassion on a daily basis, amid the realities and the challenges of life (Hochswender, Martin, & Morino, 2001). Practitioners do not seek to distance themselves from the difficulties of daily life, but rather understand that Buddhahood or ultimate happiness is to be experienced within these daily realities (Dudley-Grant, 2003). Nichiren Buddhism also has a strong emphasis towards empowering the individual and promoting one’s self-development. As Wilson and Dobbelaere (1994) describe the practice, “one takes responsibility for oneself, and chanting has a powerful, albeit not exclusive role in self-transformation. Realising ones true identity, transcending ones karma, coming to terms with reality by using the Gohonzon[8] as a mirror of one’s own individuality - all of these central preoccupations reflect the extent to which Nichiren Buddhism focuses on self-improvement and self-help” (p.186).
Soka Gakkai International New Zealand (SGINZ) currently has approximately 1,500 members and is the main lay organisation for practicing Nichiren Buddhism in New Zealand (Soka Gakkai International of New Zealand, 2011). Although still a relatively small movement in New Zealand, research has indicated that Nichiren Buddhism as practiced within SGI is a growing movement in many western countries (Machacek & Wilson, 2000; Métraux, 2010). However, considering the membership of such a worldwide organisation, very little research has been conducted specifically about Nichiren Buddhism in the context of psychology.
One of the possible reasons as to why SGI has grown so consistently in many western countries may be because of its success in merging the traditional ideals and philosophies of Buddhism with new ideas from modern thinkers and popular western psychology. Within SGI publications, there are many discussions based around Buddhism and psychology, notably the current SGI president, Daisaku Ikeda’s dialogue with Martin Seligman, entitled ‘learning to hope’ (Ikeda, 2004b). It would be impossible to give a full overview of the core principles and practices of SGI in this report, however, the main concepts are summarised below.
· Changing poison into medicine – Practitioners of Nichiren Buddhism are taught that negative events in particular provide the opportunity to develop one’s life and to transform one’s negative karma. As Dockett (2003) explains practitioners learn how to take any adversity and use it as a cause for growth and self-development. This is consistent with recent psychological research on post-traumatic growth (Calhoun, Cann, Tedeschi, & McMillan, 2000; Garland, Carlson, Cook, Lansdell, & Speca, 2007). It involves a component of cognitive reframing and is consistent with psychological cognitive approaches to converting negative events into positive outcomes (Dockett, 2003).