Three Points to Be Addressed

Three points to be addressed:

1. People Power and Politics in the Post-war period
2. Australia’s Social and Cultural History in the Post-War period
3. Changing rights and freedoms of women and aborigines (prob in post war period)

Events under Chifley (Post WWII)

1945– 1949

-Leader of Labor Govt. John Curtin dies in 1945.

-Ben Chifley takes leadership and wants to implement welfare state (idea that wealth should be shared throughout society) in this time of boom.

-They wanted to implement the policy of Nationalisation with the belief that lack of Govt. control of the economy caused the depression.

-In 1945 he tries to nationalise all interstate airline services with a bill which the High Court finds unconstitutional. So they make their own Trans Australian Airwaysand buy all the shares in Qantas.

-Similarly in 1947, he tries to nationalise the private banks of Australia. But the high court intervenes again calling it unconstitutional. This is very controversial in the public.

-Aust. citizens are becoming suspicious of the Labor Party trying to gain so much control over the economy.

-Many strikes were held in almost all working industries during this period. There was also unrest in society with the fear of Communism spreading. It was spreading through Europe and Labor govt. opponents noted the fact that Communists controlled some of Australia’s key trade unions.

-The worker frustration allowed the Communist Party to grow and in the 1940s but it wasn’t a real threat to Australian society.

-Chifley was popular but people felt he had lost touch with Aust. society in the 1949 elections. The cost of living was rising, inflation was rising and people felt Australia was losing its capitalistroots. So he lost the 1949 election.

Migration

-1945 - Chifley uses slogan “Populate or Perish” and sets up immigration department to be run by Arthur Calwell.

-Reasons for policy include:

• labour shortage after war so more workers needed to stimulate economic growth
• for defence reasons with small population on large continent and possibly aggressive Asian neighbours
• for the justification of living on such a large continent with so little people
• general humanitarian factors

-Originally the government targeted Anglo-Irish and British immigrants. They were assisted if they wanted to migrate to Australia. Ex-servicemen for free and other Brits for $20 AUD equivalent. But they needed more immigrants than this.

-1947 – Calwell makes an agreement with International Refugee Organisation enabling thousands of refugees from Europe. Mainly those fleeing from countries under Communist rule. They now accepted non-British people from Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania.

-1949 - Aust accepted anyone under 45 who didn’t support Communism. Half a million had migrated by the end of 1949 since the plan started.

-In the conservative Australian society of the 1950s, many people were suspicious of the ‘new Australians’.

-Throughout this time Calwell strongly supported the White Australia Policy only allowing white immigrants and even deporting Asians who had refugee status in Australia during the war.

-Change in Migration Policy

-Original policy from Calwell was Assimilation (migrants were expected to abandon their language and traditions and become Australians).

-1949 - Policy change started with Menzies govt. allowing 800 Asian refugees to remain in Australia.

-1958 – A change in the Migration Act meant abolishment of dictation test which had been used since federation to keep Asians out of Australia.

-1966 – The govt. developed a policy accepting migrants on the basis of their ability to contribute to Australian society allowing more non-Europeans to come to Australia. They also allowed anyone with five years residence to live in Australia.

-1973 – The Whitlam govt. finally abolished the White Australia policy. From here on, race was no longer a factor in whether you could migrate to Australia and people could become citizens after 3 years residence in Australia. Whitlam govt. brought in Racial Discrimination Act and the Racial Vilification Act in 1975 to end discrimination on the basis of race and make it illegal to stir up hatred against a group based on their race.

-Migrant Rights

-Life was tough for early migrants. Many were forced to live in hostels and camps the govt. set up for new settlers. And many were alone with little support from other family members.

The new settlers had to endure the hardships of a new land and language and being insulted with names such as ‘Dago’, ‘Reffo’ and ‘Balt’. Many had to come to terms with a society very different from their traditions and society in Europe.

-Many were unskilled and those with qualifications usually found that they were not recognised here. As a result, they usually got the hardest jobs and lost them first in hard times.

-Thousands were employed in the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme with 2/3 of the men working on the scheme being born overseas.

-Later on, Assimilation was slowly failing as ethnic ghettos were being formed. Migrants didn’t want to lose their culture so they lived near others of the same background. Suburbs with predominant nationalities developed such as Marrickville.

-This basically forced the acceptance of Multiculturalism where people were encouraged to keep their culture and traditions.

-This has created a vibrant, more tolerant society where you can enjoy the cultures of many different backgrounds. Blah blah blah all that other multicultural stuff. E.g. you can eat Chinese one night and Indian the next!

Menzies Era

1949 – 1966

-The Liberal – Country Party ruled Australia during this period led by Robert Menzies leading his party to 7 Federal Election victories. He was aided by economic prosperity and the Labor Party split in 1955.

-Was a period of great prosperity for Australia with hardships of depression and war in the past. In the 1950s, the economy grew, unemployment remained below 2% and there was a big increase in the birth rate with the arrival of the “Baby Boomers”.

-This era saw many Australians be able to get their own one acre block of land with a housing boom. Cities were expanding outwards with many suburbs being poorly planned and lacking facilities. Some psychologists observed that the new suburbs lacked a sense of community effecting the wives and mothers who were “trapped” in the 1950s home. The 1950s were the beginning of refrigeration which meant food could be kept for longer and increasing the popularity of frozen food and ice cream.

-Small corner stores lost out to one stop shop supermarkets and the days of home deliveries from the butcher or the baker came to an end. Many more appliances were used around the house to assist with household chores. E.g. washing machines, vacuum cleaners, irons

-Entertainment in the house revolved around the radio with musical programs, quiz shows, talent quests, sports coverage and mystery dramas.

-Society was very conformist and conservative. Family life and values were important after the war. Changes to the accepted ways of society were viewed with mistrust. People believed that the authority knew what was best for the community. There was strong censorship of films, books and magazines at state and federal level.

-The ‘new’ look for women was full length dresses that went below the knee.

-The baby-boomers were not cautious like their parents who had been through hardships. They gained freedom of movement and independence unknown to earlier generations.

-Music changed with the arrival of rock’n’roll with the hit “Rock Around the Clock”. This created the first cult groups of the post-war era. They were called the “bodgies” and “widgies” defying society with their dress styles, taste in music and behaviour. They were looked down upon by society.

-Society’s love of sport remained unchanged with success in the Olympics and sporting success in the sports of tennis and swimming. With greats like Dawn Fraser, Ken Rosewall and Rod Laver.

-Black and white television came in 1956 and within four years, over 1 million people owned a set. People complained about TV effecting the young and theatres complained of dwindling audience figures. During this time, television took over the theatre as the dominant form of entertainment putting hundreds of local theatres out of business.

-Advertising encouraged people to spend again. The people had remembered the times of depression and still believed in saving money. This was the start of the influence of the American way of life on Australian society.

Aborigines

-Early in the 1900s, the government followed the policy of Protectionism towards Aborigines. They thought they were a dying race and had to be protected. This meant that they were removed from contact with white Australians and forced to live on reservations with restrictions on their movements and way of life.

-By the 1930s, they found out that Aborigines weren’t actually dying out and that there were many mixed blood aborigines. So they introduced assimilation.

-1937 – An Assimilation policy was formed which aimed to ‘absorb’ Aborigines into Australian culture so that they lived like the white Australians. The policy was based on the belief that the Aboriginal way of life was “inferior” to the white way.

-During this time, the Aborigines were strongly discriminated against by the whites and did not have the same rights. They were often denied into shops, entertainment venues and denied housing and health assistance because of racism. As a result, they were often forced to live on the fringes of town with poor facilities. People did not want to associate with aborigines and many towns still had segregation policies.

-The policy also allowed district officers to take children from Aborigines and raise them as white children in schools. The removed children lost their identity and links with their aboriginal culture. They became known as ‘the stolen generation.’

-1958 – The Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders was established. This body defined the demands of the Aboriginal people and aimed to remove legislation that discriminated against aborigines. They wanted to introduce better housing, health care, improved educational opportunities and Aboriginal land rights to be protected. The policy of assimilation came into question a few years later from humanitarian groups, Aboriginal leaders and the Labor party.

-1962 – Aborigines could vote in QLD, WA and NT but not compulsory.

-1965 – At the Aboriginal Welfare Conference, the definition of assimilation was changed to mean that, “all persons of aboriginal descent would choose to attain a similar manner and standard of living to that of other Australians.” Aborigines were no longer forced to lose all of their culture, beliefs and customs.

-1967 – Successful referendum with 90.8% “yes” allows all Aboriginals to vote and be counted in the census. Even though Holt issued the referendum, he had no big plans for change in respect to aborigines. He just wished to show that Australia did not discriminate against them.

-1969 – Policy of taking children was abolished.

-1972 – Aboriginal Activism in the form of tent embassy outside Parliament House. They were showing resistance to govt policy and attracted attention to the issue of aboriginal land rights.

-1973 – Whitlam Government appoints Justin Woodward to hold an inquiry into appropriate ways to recognise Aboriginal Land Rights. His report in 1974 recommended that all Aboriginal reserve lands be returned to Aboriginal inhabitants and that Aborigines could have to claim to vacant land if they could prove they had traditional ties with it. Sacred Aboriginal sites were also to be protected. It was also proposed that entry into Aboriginal land for mining and other developments should only proceed with the permission of indigenous land owners.

-1975 – The first land rights settlement is achieved when the Gurindji people of NT are given back rights to their traditional land by Whitlam. For almost 2 centuries, the concept of land rights was ignored until this time.

-1976 – The Fraser Government passes the Aboriginal Land Rights (NT) Act following the Woodward inquiry. This implemented many of the proposals in the original inquiry. This action was supported by some states but opposed by QLD and WA who had strong mining interests.

1966 – 1972 – The Fall of the Liberals

• 1967 - Harold Holt disappears off the coast at CheviotBeach.
• 1968 – John Gorton is elected. He was popular with the people but causes infighting within the party.
• 1971 – Defence minister Malcolm Fraser resigns from the Liberal Party and attacks Gorton’s leadership.

“It’s Time”: The Whitlam Government

1972 - 1975

• The party adopts the slogan “It’s Time.” Election is held with William McMahon losing to Gough Whitlam who uses US electioneering techniques for the first time. (Like the song in that stupid video.) The nation was also in the mood for change after the 23yr reign of Liberal. Gough Whitlam is real smart and educated and not middle class but somehow leads the Labor Party. Even though they survived only 3 years, they were probably the greatest reforming govt in Australian history.
• Points of reform included:
• substantially increased spending on education, abolished university fees
• supporting equal pay for womenand putting in anti-discrimination laws to protect women’s rights
• dropping the voting age from 21 to 18
• introduced Medibank (national health insurance scheme)
• stopped mining on Aboriginal land, formation of Dept. Aboriginal Affairs with the govt accepting the need to recognise the rights of Aborigines to their land
• recognised the increased multiculturalism inAustralia; changed the immigration policy with a focus of family reunions. They abolished the White Australia policy, which used race as a barrier to Australia, introduced Racial Discrimination Act in 1975
• first major steps towards protecting the environment with establishment of Australian Heritage Commission
• also introduced ‘no-fault’ divorces through the Family Law Act 1975 so that the other parent had to be at fault
• increased spending on social welfare or the social wage as well as significantly increased pensions
• Advance Australia Fair replaced God Save The Queen as the national anthem
• He abolished National Service introduced by Menzies in 1964 and freed all draft dodgers
• Whitlam also tried to forge a new relationship with Asia. Australia recognised Communist China and dispatched Australia’s first ambassador to Beijing. Diplomatic and economic relations were made with North Vietnam and North Korea. And we granted to independence to New Guinea.

Problems of Whitlam Government

• People were suspicious of the rapidly reforming government. The public had been used to conservative governments in the past and they thought the change was too rapid.
• The rapid change caused mistakes and many policies were poorly though out with money being wasted. There weren’t many experienced ministers in his government. There was criticism that the govt. was spending too much on welfare and reform projects and ignoring rural Australia. Whitlam did not keep proper discipline within his government and had to fire many ministers. Another problem was that they did not control the senate so much legislation couldn’t get passed.
• Probably the biggest problem was the downturn in the world economy at the time. The world recession was caused by the decision of OPEC to reduce oil supplies to the west. Before Whitlam came to office, inflation had begun to rise rapidly.
• Inflation levels: 1972 – 7%, 1973 – 13%, 1975 – 15%
• Also a rapid rise in unemployment which had been virtually nil in most of the post-war years. Wages rose around 13% but then the inflation rate rose around 30%.
• Foreign investment in Australia which was already low during the recession dropped further because overseas interests disliked Whitlam’s policies and high spending.
• Whitlam called a double dissolution in 1974 to try and gain a majority in the Senate. He maintained a smaller majority in the House of Representatives but did not gain a majority in the Senate. In the Senate it was 29 – 29 senators with 2 independents.

Dismissal of Whitlam Government

• 1975 - Rex Connor was removed from office for misleading parliament in the loans affair. Rex Connor planned to buy back control over oil and mineral rights (which was being dominated more and more by multi-nationals) with $4 billion from Pakistani loans broker Tirath Khemlani (rather than the treasury which was more traditional). When Connor failed to secure the loans, the cabinet disallowed him from pursuing the loans further. But then a few months later, Khemlani claimed/revealed that Connor was still trying to get loans. And so Whitlam was forced to dismiss him.
• March 1975 – Liberal replaces Fraser with Snedden in search of a more ruthless leader.
• August 1975 – Snedden blocks supply with his majority in the Senate which goes against convention but not law. His tactic was to make the government run out of money so that they would force an election that the polls said Whitlam would lose.
• The Liberal’s had a majority in the Senate because of another convention that was broken. When a senator died or retired they were usually replaced by another senator of the same party. But one Labor senator died and the other retired, so the premiers of their respective states put in independents into their positions. This was because they were Liberal premiers. This created a majority in the Senate for the Liberals because 2 independents supported the opposition.
• Whitlam refused to call an election and hoped public opinion would force the opposition to back down. The opposition claimed that any prime minister who could not guarantee supply should be fired.
• The Governor General Sir John Kerr discussed the issues with both leaders but then sought secret advice from Sir Garfield Barwick (who had a Liberal Background with Menzies), the chief justice of the high court. This went against convention where the Governor General was expected to act on the advice of the P.M.
• 11 Nov 1975 – Kerr dismisses Whitlam using his reserve powers. Parliament passes the Appropriation Bills later that day and the Governor General calls for new elections.
• There is strong anger and shock in the Australian community with violent protests and heated debate about the powers of the Governor General.
• Even with all the anger and support for Whitlam, he was thrashed by Fraser in the election.
• Convention – sets of procedures which are not written down in the Constitution but which are usually followed by all political parties to make the system work. They are like unwritten rules which people usually follow.
• Many political observers believe if that supply cannot be secured, a prime minister should either resign or advise an election. Whitlam planned to do neither.
• Reserve Powers – the last resort powers given to the Governor General

Feminism