I. UNDERSTANDING CONSCIOUSNESS
- Controlled versus Automatic Processes–- Consciousness exists on a continuum--with high
awareness and controlled processes at the top, no awareness and coma at the bottom, and lower
awareness and automatic processes somewhere in the middle.
II. SLEEP AND DREAMS
- The Power of Circadian Rhythms - Biological rhythms affect many aspects of people’s lives.
Circadian rhythms are biological changes that occur on a 24-hour cycle and affect not only the sleep and waking cycle, but fluctuations in learning efficiency, blood pressure, metabolism, pulse rate, and other responses.
Psychology at Work: Dangers of Sleeping on the Job! - Disruptions in sleep cycles can cause problems, such as accidents or fatigue from shift work and jet lag. Sleep deprivation is correlated with significant mood alterations, decreased self-esteem, reduced concentration and motivation, increased irritability, lapses in attention, reduced motor skills, and increased cortisol levels. A two-part sleep deprivation questionnaire is presented in the “Try This Yourself” section.
B. Stages of Sleep - Using the EEG, scientists have discovered important facts about the sleep process.
A typical night's sleep consists of four to five 90-minute cycles. The cycle begins in Stage 1 and then
moves through Stages 2, 3 and 4 with each stage producing characteristic brain wave patterns. After
reaching the deepest level of sleep, the cycle reverses up to the REM (rapid eye movement) state. In
REM sleep, the eyes dart about under the eyelids, the brain pattern of the sleeper is similar to the
waking state and the person is often dreaming while the body is in muscle “paralysis”. REM sleep
may play an important role in learning and memory. Non-REM sleep is important to our biological
functioning and is nature’s first need over REM sleep.
C. Why Do We Sleep and Dream? – There are two prominent theories of why we sleep - the repair
restoration theory and the evolutionary/circadian theory. Three major theories of why we dream are
reviewed. The psychoanalytic view (the wish-fulfillment theory) says that dreams are disguised
symbols of repressed desires. It has received little scientific support. The biological perspective (the
activation-synthesis hypothesis) argues that dreams are simply unimportant by-products of random
stimulation of brain cells. The cognitive view sees dreams as information processing; they help us
sort through everyday experiences, solve problems and think creatively.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Dream Variations and Similarities -– Cross-cultural research comparing male and female dream content generally find dreams reflect life events – women are more likely to dream of children, family and household activities and men more often dream about strangers, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Interpreting Your Dreams – Readers are asked to recall a most recent and vivid dream and then analyze the significance of the dream from three perspectives – psychoanalytic, biological, and the cognitive.
D. Sleep Disorders - Three major types of dysomnias are discussed: insomnia (repeated difficulty in
falling asleep), sleep apnea (temporarily stopping breathing during sleep, causing loud snoring and
poor quality sleep), and narcolepsy (excessive daytime sleepiness characterized by sudden sleep
attacks). Two types of parasomnias are explained: nightmares (bad dreams generally occurring
during REM sleep) and night terrors (terrifying dreams experienced in Stage 3 or Stage 4 of non-
REM sleep). Sleep walking and sleep talking typically occur in this stage.
Psychology at Work: Self-Help for Sleep Problems – Recommended behavioral techniques from the Better Sleep Council are presented.
- DRUGS THAT INFLUENCE CONSCIOUSNESS - Psychoactive drugs are defined as chemicals that change conscious awareness or perception. Psychoactive drugs change the effect of neurotransmitters in the brain in two ways: they enhance the effectiveness of the neurotransmitters and are called agonists or inhibit the effectiveness and are called antagonists.
- Understanding Psychoactive Drugs – People of all cultures have used and abused psychoactive
drugs, which include everyday things such as caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. Students are
introduced to important drug terminology, including drug abuse, addiction, psychological
dependence, physical dependence,withdrawal and tolerance. Effects of major psychoactive drugs
are summarized in Table 5.1 in text.
1. Depressants - Depressant drugs (sometimes called “downers”), like alcohol, barbiturates, and antianxiety drugs, depress the central nervous system, causing relaxation, sedation, or possible loss of consciousness. Next to tobacco, alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in Western society. Alcohol abuse can lead to serious losses in cognitive functioning, as well as to major social problems. Alcohol is involved in nearly half of all murders, suicides, spousal abuse, and accidental deaths in the United States and accounts for about half of all highway fatalities. It is listed as the third leading cause of birth defects and can encourage impulsive acts of aggression or sexual risk taking.
2. Stimulants - Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine are all common stimulants (also known as “uppers”), which increase the overall activity and responsiveness of the central nervous system. Caffeine is now the world’s most widely used drug. Nicotine not only affects the smoker, but bystanders who breathe it. Tobacco kills more than AIDS, legal drugs, illegal drugs, road accidents, murder, and suicide combined. Tobacco is considered the single most preventable cause of death and disease in the United States. Cocaine, which was once considered relatively harmless, is now known for its potential for physical damage, severe addiction and psychological dependence.
3. Opiates- Opiates or narcotics, such as morphine and heroin, numb the senses and are used medically to relieve pain. They are also called opiates because they are derived from opium, the juice of the opium poppy. They produce their effect by mimicking the brain’s own natural painkillers, called endorphins and they are highly addictive.
4. Hallucinogens - Hallucinogens, like LSD or marijuana are commonly known as “psychedelics” and produce sensory or perceptual distortions, including visual, auditory, or kinesthetic hallucinations. After years of research, researchers and the public continue to debate the possible ill effects and its effects are dosage dependent. Negative consequences include impaired memory, attention and learning, and an impact on the brain similar to highly addictive drugs. Therapeutic uses have been found including the treatment of glaucoma and alleviating nausea associated with chemotherapy.
Research Highlight: Addictive Drugs as the Brain’s “Evil Tutor” – Do addictive drugs “teach” the brain to be addicted? The role of neurotransmitters including dopamine and glutamate are explored.
Psychology at Work: Club Drug Alert – The drug Rohypnol (the date rape drug) and MDMA (ecstasy) and their effects and potential dangers are discussed..
IV. HEALTHIER WAYS TO ALTER CONSCIOUSNESS
A. Meditation - Meditation is a group of techniques designed to focus attention and produce a heightened
awareness. Meditation can produce dramatic changes in physiological processes, including heart rate,
oxygen consumption, brain waves, and respiration. A simple meditation exercise in “Try This
Yourself” section is demonstrated.
B. Hypnosis - Hypnosis is an alternate state of heightened suggestibility characterized by narrowed,
highly focused attention, increased use of imagination, a passive and receptive attitude, decreased
responsiveness to pain, and heightened suggestibility. Five common myths are discussed - forced
hypnosis, unethical behavior, exceptional memory, superhuman strength, and fakery are debunked. It is
employed as a respected clinical tool by physicians and dentists to reduce pain and increase
concentration, and by therapists as an adjunct to psychotherapy.