FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
CONTENT:
FOCUS QUESTION 1- HOW DOES TRAINING AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Energy systems
· Types of training and training methods
· Principles of training
· Physiological adaptations in response to training
FOCUS QUESTION 2- HOW CAN PSYCHOLOGY AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Motivation
· Anxiety and Arousal
· Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety
FOCUS QUESTION 3- HOW CAN NUTRITION AND RECOVERY STRATEGIES AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Nutritional considerations
· Supplementation
· Recovery strategies
FOCUS QUESTION 4- HOW DOES THE ACQUISITION OF SKILL AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Stages of skill acquisition
· Characteristics of a learner
· The learning environment
· Assessment of skill and performance
FOCUS QUESTION 1- HOW DOES TRAINING AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Energy systems:
All energy is provided in the muscles in the form of the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Chemical reactions in the body cause ATP to break down and release energy to the muscles for work. The chemical reactions are a result of a combination of oxygen we breathe and the breakdown of food, mainly carbohydrates and fats.
The structure and breakdown of ATP:
The ATP molecule has three phosphate molecules attached to it by high energy chemical bonds. One phosphate splits from the molecule and energy is released. The remaining compound is adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The ATP stored in the muscles in small amounts, so ADP must be rebuilt back to ATP for the muscles to keep working.
- Alactacid system (ATP/PC)
- Lactic Acid system
- Aerobic System
· Types of training and training methods
The purpose of training is to prepare the body for optimum response to physical demands of performance. Regular training results in beneficial changes to the cardio respiratory system, strength capacity and flexibility.
- Aerobic
During Aerobic training, oxygen is taken up by the muscle and the heart rate is increased. Aerobic endurance training is continuous and may occur over a long distance. Examples of aerobic training are:
o Continuous: simplest form, constant effort and intensity (training with no rest)
o Aerobic Interval: periods of structured work interspersed with rest periods in set patterns designed to match athletes sport and conditioning levels.
o Fartlek: alternating bursts of high intensity, while still maintaining the longer slower type of training.
o Circuit: type of interval training which involves selecting different exercises or stations to use for a set interval of time with no rest.
- Anaerobic
o Anaerobic Interval: is similar to aerobic interval in that high intensity activity is completed with either lesser recovery or at a minimum of 2mins rest applied. This form of training attempts to increase the tolerance to lactic acid and use the anaerobic energy system more efficiently for endurance.
- Flexibility
Flexibility is the movement allowed by joints of the body. Bending, Stretching, Twisting and performances of everyday activities require various degrees of flexibility, training method include:
o Static Stretching: a safe. Slow stretch held for up to half a minute enhances the joint mobility and increases blood flow and blood temperature, reducing risk of injury.
o Dynamic Stretching: involves actively moving parts of the body being stretched to increase the length of the muscle.
o Ballistic Stretching: Requires extra stretching or ‘bouncing’ and is not suitable for untrained pupils.
o PNF Stretching (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation): involves static stretching with another person providing resistance for an isometric contraction. This particular stretch is used in conjunction with static stretching to strengthen the muscles fibres during the stretch.
- Strength Training
Strength is the maximum force against a set resistance that muscles can exert in a single effort. Relevant terms:
► Repetition (number of time repeated without a break)
► Repetition maximum (RM) (the amount of resistance you can lift once)
► Set (the number of repetitions completed make a set)
► Rest (period of recovery time)
► Resistance (weight)
► Power (Force exerted by muscle)
► Spotter (partner)
There are three different types of contractions:
o Isometric: a force is applied but there is little or no change in the length of the muscle and its fibres. The strength is specified to certain angles.
o Isotonic: muscle fibres shorten and lengthen depending on the exercise and whether it is the agonist or antagonist muscle in the exercise.
Eccentric: is the force developed in the muscle when the muscle extends or relaxes
Concentric: is the force developed when the muscle contracts or shortens.
o Isoknetic: The use of a machine to ensure the resistance or weight is applied throughout the entire range of motion. These machines are elaborate in their design to ensure exercise is done correctly.
· Principles of training
- Progressive overload
o One of the key principles
o Improvement will only occur when the athlete undertakes a training load exceeding what the body is normally accustomed to and is forced to operate beyond its normal range.
o Progressive overload can be achieved by varying the frequency, duration and intensity of the training.
o Changes in intensity have the greatest effect on fitness. However, it can cause injury if done incorrectly.
o Overload can be progressed into resistance training by increasing:
§ The resistance
§ The number of sets
§ The intensity- the more work in the same period in the same time by reducing recovery periods
o Once the body has adapted to a certain level, increase the load and repeat training.
o Adaptations occur during the recovery period after the training session is completed. If there is no progression, then the athlete’s fitness levels will plateau and no improvement will occur.
o If athletes over train this will be detrimental to their performance and if the training is not overloaded enough improvement will not occur.
o The key to successful training is to increase the workload gradually over a long period so that improvements can be maintained and overtraining avoided.
- Specificity
o Specificity is aimed at specific or designated components of fitness, muscle groups and/or energy systems used in the activity being trained for.
o Specificity should also be used to replicate as closely as possible the movements in the activity being trained for.
o The training will then overload the relevant physiological systems and achieve a training effect resembling what actually happens during performance.
- Reversibility
o If training is stopped, gains initially made by the athlete will decline at approximately ⅓ the rate of acquisition, this is also called detraining.
o Athletes should also maintain strength, conditioning and flexibility throughout the competitive season, but at a lesser intensity and volume.
o Although it is certainly difficult to maintain training if athlete is injured, substitute training should still occur for athletes to try and maintain previous fitness levels.
- Variety
o It is important to sustain enjoyment in what they do with the athletes, and the maintain motivation and reduce the athlete’s boredom in training doing the same similar skills each week does little to promote variety.
- Training Thresholds
o Training thresholds are the bare minimum exercise efforts needed to produce improvement in fitness.
o For exercise to be effective it must be performed:
§ With sufficient frequency
§ At high enough intensity
§ For sufficient length of duration (20 minutes minimum)
o Training thresholds are two points which indicate the zone for athletic improvements to occur
o The thresholds relate to the maximum heart rate of the athlete.
o Aerobic training threshold refers to the lowest point at which is of benefit to the athlete. It is roughly 60% of the Maximum Heart Rate (MHR)
o The target ‘Training Zone’ is optimal at 60-80% MHR
o The anaerobic threshold is where OBLA happens. As a result fatigue starts to occur so the body slows down and trains once more in the aerobic training zone.
o For athletes who rely heavily on the lactic acid system they would train so close as possible to the anaerobic threshold.
o Throughout correct training, it is possible to the anaerobic threshold.
o Throughout correct training, it is possible for an athlete to delay the threshold by being able to increase the ability to deal with the lactic for a longer period of time or by pushing the threshold higher.
- Warm up/ Cool down
o The warm-up can be divided into three sections;
§ A general boy warm-up;
§ Stretching; and
§ Activity specific where certain muscle groups are used
§ Warm up’s purpose is to increase body and muscle temperatures, prevent injury to muscles and joints, stimulate the cardio respiratory system, to prepare mentally for training and to become aware of any environmental factors that need consideration.
o The cool down is effectively a warm-up in reverse and is vital to bring heart rate back to normal slowly, so that the strain is taken off the heart and prevent blood in the extremities of the body, such as the feet.
o If a cool down is not done, muscle stiffness may occur from waste that was built up in the muscles (lactic acid) and not allowed to be dispersed with a cool down.
· Physiological adaptations in response to training
- Hemoglobin level
o
- Oxygen intake and Lung capacity
- Muscle hypertrophy
- Effect of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres
- Resting heart rate (RHR)
o RHR is the rate at which the heart beats (beats per minute) when we are at rest.
o A consequence of training is a lower RHR than pre-training. This is due to a more efficient cardiovascular system as well as stroke volume.
o The heart consists of cardiac muscles and like any muscle that undergoes training, it will also undergo muscle hypertrophy and become more efficient.
- Stroke volume and Cardiac output
o Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per beat.
o As the heart becomes more efficient the left ventricle actually becomes bigger and as a result will pump more blood out per beat than pre-training.
o Another adaptation resulting from exercise is that the heart will become more forceful with each beat.
o Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute by the heart.
o CO= SV x HR (CO- Cardiac output, SV- stroke volume, HR- heart rate)
o The heart rate will rise normally under maximal or sub-maximal activity to increase the ventilation rates around the body.
FOCUS QUESTION 2- HOW CAN PSYCHOLOGY AFFECT PERFORMANCE
· Motivation
An internal state that activates directs and sustains behavior towards achieving a particular goal.
- Positive and Negative
o Positive: when a performers are treated with respect as individuals receive praise, encouragement, recognition and rewards for effort.(e.g. pat on the back, encouragement)
o Negative: when results occur through fear of failure and negative feedback on poor performance.(e.g. threats, ultimatums, and punishments)
- Intrinsic and Extrinsic
o Intrinsic: when self-evaluation of the performer and feelings of satisfaction with the result occurs.
o Extrinsic: when recognition takes material forms or from sources outside the person such as gold medals, sponsorship, similar financial rewards and reactions from the crowd (cheering, booing).
- Reinforced Socially: with approval from crowds, mates governments and nations with rewards to encourage continued participation.
- Reinforced Internally: because the performer aspires to goals that come from within.
· Anxiety and Arousal
Anxiety heightens emotions and causes reactions in the performer.
- Trait and state anxiety
o Trait anxiety: describes the personal and physical traits shown by an individual feeling apprehension or tension. These might include an attack of nerves, a rise in heart rate or sweating. Can also be a general predisposition to perceive a situation as threatening. (personality trait)
o State anxiety: describes the emotional response and reactions to a particular event and might occur before a major race or a grand final game.
- Sources of stress
o Are personal and include the importance of the performance to the individual, previous experiences, fear of failure or injury and an all over active imagination.
Arousal describes the state of readiness of the individual before the performance.
- Optimum arousal
o Achieves best performance. A low level of arousal due to factors such as stress or lack of motivation will affect the performance. High arousal caused by anxiety or an inability to cope with the tension of performance also affects the athlete’s ability to achieve the best results.
o For optimum performance, each individual must attain a moderate level of arousal. Too much or too little leads to poor performance. The more complex and fine the motor skills require low levels of arousal e.g. archery. The more simple and gross the motor skills are require high levels of arousal e.g. running.
· Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety
- Concentration/ attention skills (focusing)
o Concentration: is the ability of the athlete to focus on the task at hand.
o Emphasis should be on the process rather than the outcome.
o Athlete should take into account internal (mental and physical feel and response) and external (environment) factors.
o The more experience the athlete the increase ability they will have to filter out unnecessary information that will not benefit their performance, also due to their ability to turn off concentration when not needed to avoid fatigue.
- Mental Rehearsal/ Visualisation / imagery
o Mental Rehearsal: is when an athlete mentally pictures the performance or skill before completion. It needs to be practiced to be effectively ‘turned on’ when needed. Although it is more than just picturing the actual skill, it involves recreating the situation incorporating the surrounding activity (spectators, noise and weather).
o Visualisation: focuses on picturing specific aspects of the performance or skill, and allows the athlete to imagine what the skill or parts of the skills will look like from their perspective.
- Relaxation techniques
o These techniques allow athletes to manage anxiety and calm themselves down. Relaxation techniques are normally used prior to a mental rehearsal or visualization session, and place the athlete in the right mindset.
o Meditation is used by an athlete to calm down, so they can be in a positive mindset and seek to control the body’s response to stress (e.g. tensing and relaxing muscles).
o Progressive relaxation: is excellent for reducing stress and involves tensing and relaxing muscles, which releases tension in muscles or when the body is stressed with symptoms such as headaches and backaches.
- Goal-setting
o Goals allow the athlete to maintain motivation by giving them an end point or some direction in which to take their sporting performance. Goal setting will allow the athlete a sense of achievement if they reach their goals.
o When setting goals it is easy to remember that they should all be SMART:
§ Specific- and exact so no misinterpretations.
§ Measurable- place objective measurements.