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Objectives
Author / M G Callagher
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Focus Questions
1. What is meant by the policy of Appeasement?
2. Why did Britain take up the Policy of Appeasement?
3. How was Hitler able to achieve Anschluss?
4. How was Hitler’s position strengthened by this achievement?
Policy of Appeasement
Neville Chamberlain became the British Prime Minister in 1937.Chamberlain took up the policy of “appeasement” just as Hitler was poised to become far more aggressive. This partly explains Hitler’s continued success.
Appeasement: A foreign policy which seeks to satisfy those states with grievances or claims by making concessions; thus avoiding war. / <caption>Neville Chamberlain becomes British Prime Minister May 1937</caption>
Arguments for Appeasement
There were several reasons that Britain under Chamberlain took up this policy towards Hitler’s Germany.
1. Some German Claims were Just.
There was a feeling that Germany had been hard done by at Versailles therefore some concessions were deserved
2. Greater Fear of Communism
Parts of Europe were still recovering from the affects of the Great Depression. This sowed the seeds for the further spread of Russian Communism which was feared more than Nazism. Hitler’s Germany was seen as a barrier against communism and less of a long term threat.
3. Strong Peace Movement
The “Peace” movement in Britain and France wanted to avoid war.
· There was a strong belief that peace, far from being based on power, could only be secured by the limitation or even the elimination of military force.
· The idea of war as a means of policy was rejected as both irrational and repugnant. Professional military men had lost much of their prestige and influence after the First World War.
4. No Effective League of Nations
The League of Nations had now been severely weakened and was widely considered to be ineffective. It was now left to France and Britain to enforce the peace in Europe.
1. French Defensive Thinking
The French were unwilling to be involved in forcing Germany’s hand. Their main effort went into defending their own territory. They continued to build up and strengthen their Maginot Line defensive fortress.
British Military was Unprepared
The effect on foreign policy of the state of British armaments and strategic thinking were far-reaching.
The fundamental problem was the disparity between Britain’s commitments and her resources.
The aim was to diminish the number of enemies
In 1937 the Chiefs of Staff produced a gloomy review of Britain’s enemies:
1. Japan in the Pacific and Asia.
2. Italy in the Mediterranean.
3. Germany in Europe.
Their conclusion was that rearmament was to be further advanced and
It should be the first task of foreign policy to diminish the number of Britain’s enemies
The policy of “appeasement” should never be judged without recalling this sternly realistic recommendation:
1. To reach an accommodation with Italy in the Mediterranean.
2. To avoid confrontation with the Axis powers over the Spanish Civil War.
3. To find the basis for a settlement with Germany.
4. To make only the most cautious response to Japanese aggression in China.
It is also worth noting that Britain had committed large forces to crush an Arab uprising in Palestine.
Arguments against Appeasement
Winston ChurchillArgued strongly against Chamberlain’s appeasement towards Hitler’s demands
He saw that giving way would only increase the power of the aggressors.
The struggle is only being put off until later.
Germany was preparing faster for war and was likely to gain more from delays
David Low
The cartoonist continued to express similar sentiments in his British newspaper cartoons / <caption>Winston Churchill</caption> / <caption>David Low</caption>
The Background: Austria After 1919
The Breakup and Anschluss ForbiddenPrior to World War One the Austria-Hungarian Empire had been one of the world’s major powers.
As a result of its loss during the Great War it had broken up.
The new small nation of Austria was dominated by German speaking people who wanted to unite with their stronger German neighbour. However they were forbidden to do so by the Treaty of Versailles.
Few Austrians were loyal to their own country with most one day hoping to join with Germany. / <caption>Map of the Austria-Hungarian Empire prior to its break-up in 1919</caption>
Political Problems
Throughout the 1920’s and 1930’s there had been severe political problems. The country was dominated by two political parties: The right wing Heimwehr and the left wing socialist schutzbund. Both parties had private armies who occasionally fought street battles.
1934 Civil War
Socialists DefeatedIn 1934 the Socialists were defeated in a brief civil war. However, the right wing was deeply divided. In July 1934 a right wing Nazi group tried to take over the government. They killed the Chancellor, Dollfuss and tried to encourage a German takeover.
Hitler’s takeover was prevented when a stronger Mussolini threatened to send in his troops. From then on Austria had to rely on Mussolini’s protection.
Mussolini Withdraws Support
By 1936 Mussolini had become allied to Germany. He subsequently withdrew his guarantee of Austrian independence.
By 1938 he had told Hitler that he regarded Austria as a German state and that he would not stop a German takeover. Austria had lost its main protector. / <caption>A member of the Heimwehr shoots a socialist Schutzbund member during the civil war</caption>
Anschluss with Austria, 1938
The Anschluss (Union) with Austria was one of the first major steps in Adolf Hitler’s long-desired creation of an empire including German-speaking lands and territories Germany had lost after World War I.Already prior to 1938, the Rhineland was remilitarised and the Saar region was returned to Germany after fifteen years of occupation. / <caption>Austria 1938</caption>
Nazi Ban
The new Austrian Chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, had rounded up and interned most Austrian Nazi’s after the 1934 assassination of Dollfuss and the attempted Nazi takeover. He had also interned socialist activists.A ban had been placed on political parties including the Nazi Party.
Many Austrian Nazi’s had fled to Germany. / <caption>Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg</caption>
Hitler’s Ultimatum
By 1938 Hitler was increasing the pressure on AustriaHitler summoned Schuschnigg in February 1938 and threatened war unless he met a series of demands:
· Lift the ban of political parties
· Reinstate full party freedoms
· Release all imprisoned members of the Nazi Party and let them participate in the government
The main demand was for Schuschnigg to appoint Seyss-Inquart, a Nazi lawyer, as Interior Minister. This would have given him control of the police.
Schuschnigg could see that Hitler was aiming at a Nazi take-over of Austria. / <caption>Austrian Nazi, Seyss-Inquart</caption>
Hitler’s Ultimatum (as recalled by Schuschnigg in 1947):
“I have only to give an order, and in one single night all your ridiculous defenses will be blown to bits. You don’t seriously believe that you can stop me for half an hour, do you?....Don’t think for one moment that anybody on earth is going to thwart my decisions. Italy? I see eye to eye with Mussolini….England? England will not move one finger for Austria….France? France could have stopped Germany in the Rhineland, but it is too late for France….I give you for the last time the chance to come to terms. Think it over Herr Schuschnigg. I can only wait until this afternoon.”
Last Bid to Stall Hitler
Call for Plebiscite (Vote)Schuschnigg could see that Hitler was aiming at a Nazi take-over of Austria. He tried to prevent this by organising a plebiscite (vote) by the Austrian people on a single issue. The question would be asking the people if they wanted a “free and Germanic, an independent and social, a Christian and united Austria.”
Of course the Austrian’s would vote for a free Austrian state, which would undermine Hitler’s attempted unification (Anschluss) of the two countries.
Hitler demands Schuschnigg’s Resignation
Hitler reacted angrily to Schuschnigg’s announcement of the Plebiscite. He demanded that it be delayed and that Schuschnigg resigns or the German army would invade Austria.
Schuschnigg and his government resigned in order to avoid an invasion. He received no support from other nations and feared having to fight Germany alone. / <caption>Schuschnigg announces a Plebiscite</caption>
German Troops cross the border
Seyss-Inquart ActsThe Austrian Nazi, Seyss-Inquart, was the only government minister who didn’t resign and remained in office. He promptly invited the German army to occupy Austria to help avoid civil disorder which had been growing since the resignations.
Troops Cross the Border
On 12th March 1938 German troops crossed the border.
Hitler followed later in the day and paraded in front of cheering Austrian crowds. / <caption>German troops entering Austria</caption>
Enemies Rounded Up
Political Opposition DestroyedWhile the crowds cheered Hitler and the German army the German Political Police, the Gestapo, were busy rounding up Austrian opponents of the Nazi’s.
Schuschnigg and many others were arrested and sent to prison camps in Germany.
Austrian Jews targeted
Austria’s 183,000 Jews were deprived of their civil rights like the right to own property or to congregate in public places.
Many Austrian Jews were humiliated in public by Nazis. / <caption> Austrian Jews forced to scrub the streets under Nazi supervision </caption>
Plebiscite rigged
Hitler held the plebiscite that had been announced by Schuschnigg.However, political opponents were banned from voting. There was also a huge propaganda campaign encouraging people to vote ja (yes) for unification.
The rigging of the plebiscite resulted in an overwhelming 99% result in support of Anschluss. / <caption> Even posters supporting Hitler were put up in the voting booths </caption>
Responses to Anschluss
“Not only the Austrians Voted” – Low, 12 April 1938
Britain and France
Appeasement in Action
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, not wanting to confront Germany, justified the action as an application of self-determination.
He claimed that this was what the Austrian people wanted.
The speed of the takeover had made it simpler for Britain, France and Italy to betray their commitments to the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations and collective security.
Britain and France merely protested. They appeased the actions of Germany, hoping Hitler would demand no more.
Stalin of the Soviet Union (USSR) probably felt more threatened as Germany had advanced into Eastern Europe.
Hitler had succeeded in destroying a country’s independence simply by threatening to use force.
Churchill’s Ominous Warning
Churchill’s Statement to the British Government, 14 March 1938
“Europe is confronted with a program of aggression, there is only one choice open, not only to us but to other countries, either to submit like Austria, or else take effective measures while time remains to ward off the danger…..Where are we going to be two years hence, when the German Army will certainly be much larger than the French Army, and when all the small nations will have fled from Geneva to make up to the ever growing power of the Nazi system, and to make the best terms that they can for themselves.”
Summary
Main Points
· Britain took up the policy of Appeasement because of multiple threats to its global empire. Chamberlain was trying to avoid conflict even at the cost of Hitler achieving some of his aims.
· Hitler put huge pressure on opponents to Appeasement in Austria, including Chancellor Schuschnigg.
· Hitler achieved Anschluss with Austria without the use of force
· Hitler saw that Britain and France were unprepared to stand up to Germany.