Electronic Supplementary Material to Jeschke:When Carnivores Are Full and Lazy

Jeschke

Electronic Supplementary material to Jeschke:When carnivores are “full and lazy”

Kill Rates of Free-Ranging Carnivorous Birds and Mammals Compared to their Demands

Carnivore species / Season / Kill rate KR / DEMAND / NKR<DEMAND/Ntotal
Birds
Accipiter gentilis
(northern goshawk) / Year-round
Winter / ♂♂: >202 g/d, ♀♀: >270 g/d (1)
♂♂: 133 g/d, ♀♀: 189 g/d (2) / ♂♂: 108-132 g/d, ♀♀: 144-176 g/d (2) / 0/4
Falco peregrinus
(peregrine falcon) / Breeding / 188 g/d (3) / 128-156 g/d (4) / 0/1
Phalacrocorax carbo
(great cormorant) / Breeding / ♂♂: 787, 969, 1017 g/d (5)
♀♀: 516, 810, 1230 g/d (5) / 747-913 g/d (6)
668-816 g/d (6) / 1/6
Stercorarius parasiticus (Arctic skua) / Breeding / 45 g/d, 47 g/d (7) / 121-147 g/d (8) / 2/2
Mammals
Acinonyx jubatus (cheetah) / ? / ≈4.0 kg/d (9) / 3.1-3.9 kg/d (10) / 0/1
Canis lupus (wolf) / Year-round
Winter
? / 5.6 kg/d (11); 8.2, 10, 14, 17 kg/d (12)
3.1, 3.9, 4.9, 5.7, 5.9, 6.5, 6.5, 7.2, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 kg /d (13); 5.4 kg/d (14); 6.8 kg/d (15); 6.1, 17.1 kg/d (16); 8.1, 10, 12, 13 kg/d (17)
1.1, 12, 13, 16, 18, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 24, 27, 34, 36 kg/d (18) / 2.5-3.1 kg/d (19) / 1/38 (3%)
Canis latrans (coyote) / Winter / 0.50, 0.53, 0.66, 0.94, 1.1, 1.4, 1.9, 3.0 kg/d (20) / 0.66-0.80 kg/d (21) / 2/8 (25%)
Crocuta crocuta
(spotted hyena) / Winter-spring
Winter
Summer-fall
? / 3.8 kg/d (22)
2.0 kg/d (23)
4.0 kg/d (24)
3.8 kg/d (9), 3.8 kg/d (25) / 3.6-4.4 kg/d (26) / 1/5 (20%)
Hyaena brunnea
(brown hyena) / ? / ≈3.2 kg/d (9) / 2.8-3.4 kg/d (27) / 0/1
Lutra lutra (Eurasian otter) / Fall / >1 kg/d (28) / 0.65-0.79 kg/d (29) / 0/1
Lycaon pictus
(African wild dog) / Year-round / 2.7 kg/d (30) / 1.8-2.2 kg/d (31) / 0/1
Lynx canadensis
(Canadian lynx) / Year-round
Winter
? / >0.72 kg/d (32)
0.84, 0.85, 1.0, 1.1, 1.3, 1.3, 1.5,1.6 kg/d (20); 0.39, 0.56, 0.63, 0.96, 1.1 kg/d (33)
1.0, ≈1.3 kg/d (34) / 0.53-0.65 kg/d (35) / 1/16 (6%)
Lynx lynx (Eurasian lynx) / Year-round / Kittens: ≈1.9 kg/d (36)
Subadults: 1.7 kg/d (36)
Adult ♂♂: 3.4 kg/d (36), 3.6 kg/d (37)
Adult ♀♀: ≈1.9 kg/d (37), 3.4 kg/d (36) / 0.72-0.88 kg/d (38)
1.1-1.3 kg/d (38)
1.2-1.4 kg/d (38)
1.5-1.9 kg/d (38) / 0/6
Panthera leo (lion) / Year-round
Winter-spring
?
?
? / Adult ♀♀: 5.0, 5.3, 7.6 kg/d (39)
Adults: 5.9 kg/d (22)
Adults: 4.9, 5.1 kg/d (40)
Adult ♂♂: 7.0, 7.2 kg/d (40)
Adult ♀♀: 4.7, 5.0 kg/d (40) / 4.4-5.4 kg/d (41)
5.5-6.7 kg/d (41)
5.5-6.7 kg/d (41)
6.6-8.0 kg/d (41)
4.4-5.4 kg/d (41) / 2/10 (20%)
Panthera pardus (leopard) / Year-round / Adult ♂♂: 3.5 kg/d (42) / 3.2-3.9 kg/d (43) / 0/1
Puma concolor (cougar) / Year-round
? / Adults: ≈3.9, ≈10.2 kg/d (44)
Adult ♂♂: 8.6 kg/d (45)
Adult ♀♀: 7.1 kg/d (45)
Adults: ≈6.7, ≈8.3 kg/d (46) / 2.8-3.5 kg/d (45)
2.2-2.7 kg/d (45)
3.5-4.2 kg/d (45)
2.8-3.5 kg/d (45) / 0/6

Notes: For a general outline of the calculation of KR and DEMAND, see the main body text. Each DEMAND is given as a range, calculated as the estimated mean value 10%.

(1)Kenward (1977)

(2)Kenward et al. (1981)

(3)Redpath and Thirgood (1997)

(4)Nagy et al. (1999) gave a FMR of 341 kJ/d for a 211 g weighing kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). According to Dunning (1993), adult male peregrines weigh on average 611 g and females weigh 952 g, giving with FMR M0.681 for birds a FMR of 703.4 kJ/d for males and 951.4 kJ/d for females, thus 827 kJ/d for an average adult peregrine. Because of Jensen’s inequality (Ruel and Ayres 1999), one should calculate the FMR for each sex separately and use these values to calculate the FMR averaged over both sexes. Taking just the body mass averaged over both sexes instead leads to a slight systematic overestimation of FMR. The PE is here 0.0129 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 142 g/d.

(5)Grémillet et al. (2004)

(6)Nagy et al. (1999) gave an allometric equation for the FMR of an average marine bird: 14.25 M0.659 kJ/d, giving with M = 3200 g for male and 2600 g for female great cormorants in Greenland (Grémillet et al. 2004) a FMR of 2908.8 kJ/d for males and one of 2536.8 kJ/d for females. Since the caloric value of cormorants’ prey in Greenland is known and markedly lower than the average energy content of animals (4.2 kJ/g compared to 7 kJ/g), I use this value to calculate DEMAND. The PE is here 0.0129 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 830 g/d and 742 g/d for males and females, respectively.

(7)Caldow and Furness (1991, 2001) observed Arctic skuas (Stercorarius parasiticus) during the breeding seasons of 1986 and 1987. There, the skuas forage only during daylight hours (Caldow and Furness 1991). Since Caldow and Furness (2001) observed the skuas at a latitude of 60° N and a longitude of 2° W between mid-June and mid-August, there were about 20 daylight hours per day. Skuas forage when they are off-territory, and off-territory times in 1986-1987 for skua pairs with one or two chicks, respectively, have been given by Caldow and Furness (1991) in their Table 1:

In case of skua pairs with one chick, one adult was off-territory 26% of the available foraging time (5.2 h/d) in the first 8 days post hatching and 51% (10.2 h/d) of the rest of the pre-fledging stage. This latter period is about 20 days because the total fledging period is about 28 days (RSPB 2004). Over the total fledging period, one adult was hence off-territory on average about 5.2 h/d  8/28 + 10.2 h/d  20/28 = 8.8 h/d. When foraging, one skua stole on average 1.7 fish/h from auks. I calculated this value from the raw data underlying Caldow and Furness (2001) which were kindly provided by Richard Caldow. The average consumption rate was thus 15 fish/d. Caldow (pers. comm.) reported a mean fish length of 11.6 cm (N = 40) what converts to an average fresh mass of 6.6 g. The average consumption rate was hence 99 g-fish/d. According to Phillips (2001), fish represent about 94% of the diet of Arctic skuas in Shetland. This value yields a total average consumption rate of 105 g/d that had to be divided between two adults and one chick. Assuming that the chick got 34% the amount of food an adult got (Drent et al. 1992) gives a consumption of 45 g/d per adult.

In case of skua pairs with two chicks, one adult was off-territory 34% of the available foraging time (6.8 h/d) in the first 8 days post hatching and 59% (11.8 h/d) of the rest of the pre-fledging stage. Over the total fledging period, one adult was thus off-territory about 6.8 h/d  8/28 + 11.8 h/d  20/28 = 10.4 h/d, giving an average consumption rate of 18 fish/d and a total of 126 g/d for both adults and chicks and one of 47 g/d per adult.

(8)Nagy et al. (1999) gave an allometric equation for the FMR of an average marine bird: 14.25 M0.659 kJ/d, giving with M = 405 g for male and 467 g for female Arctic skuas in Shetland (Phillips 2001) a FMR of 745.0 kJ/d for males and one of 818.3 kJ/d for females, thus an average FMR of 782 kJ/d. The PE is here 0.0129 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 134 g/d.

(9)Reviewed by Henschel and Tilson (1988)

(10)Nagy et al. (1999) gave an allometric equation for the FMR of an average species of the taxon Carnivora: 1.67 M0.869 kJ/d, giving with M = 55000 g for males and 45000g for females (Estes 1991) a FMR of 21983.2 kJ/d for males and one of 18465.4 kJ/d for females, thus an average FMR of 20224 kJ/d The PE is here 0.0318 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 3.5 kg/d.

(11)Jędrzejewski et al. (2002)

(12)Calculations as in (18) but based on data from Hayes and Harestad (2000).

(13)Calculations based on data from Dale et al. (1994) for wolves preying on caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). M (caribou) was set to 65 kg which is about the average mass of an adult caribou (86 kg according to Smith et al. 2003) multiplied by 0.75, a rough correction for the fact that wolf do not only consume adults.

(14)Carbyn (1983)

(15)Hebblewhite et al. (2003)

(16)Mech et al. (2001)

(17)Calculations based on data from Smith et al. (2004) for wolves preying on elk (Cervus elaphus). M (elk) was set to 164 kg (218 kg [Smith et al. 2003]  0.75).

(18)Messier (1994) reviewed wolf kill rates on moose (Alces alces) in which the latter represented > 75% of wolf ungulate diets. To estimate total wolf kill rate, I multiplied the kill rates given by Messier by 1.2. M (moose) was set to 270 kg (359 kg [Smith et al. 2003]  0.75).

(19)Nagy et al. (1999) gave a FMR of 17,700 kJ/d for a 37.3 kg weighing wolf. The average adult North American wolf mass is according to Smith et al. (2003) 42.8 kg, giving with FMR M0.869 for Carnivora (Nagy et al. 1999) a FMR of 15,955 kJ/d. The PE is here 0.0314 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 2.8 kg/d.

(20)Calculations based on data from O’Donoghue et al. (1998) for coyotes or lynx, respectively, preying on snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus). M (snowshoe hare) was set to 1.3 kg (1.71 kg [Smith et al. 2003]  0.75).

(21)Laundré and Hernández (2003) gave an Edemand of 5144 kJ/d what translates to 0.73 kg/d (see main body text).

(22)Green et al. (1984)

(23)Kruuk (1972)

(24)Henschel and Tilson (1988)

(25)Henschel and Skinner (1990)

(26)Calculations as for cheetah but with M = 54000 or 63150 g for males or females, respectively (Estes 1991), giving a DEMAND of 4.0 kg/d.

(27)Calculations as for cheetah but with M = 42700 or 43900 g for males or females, respectively (Estes 1991), giving a DEMAND of 3.1 kg/d.

(28)Carss et al. (1990)

(29)Calculations as for cheetah but with M = 8000 g (Carss et al. 1990), giving a DEMAND of 0.72 kg/d.

(30)Estes and Goddard (1967)

(31)Nagy et al. (1999) gave a FMR of 15,300 kJ/d for a 25.17 kg weighing wolf. The average mass of the African wild dogs studied by Estes and Goddard (1967) was about 18 kg, giving with FMR M0.869 for Carnivora (Nagy et al. 1999) a FMR of 11,500 kJ/d. The PE is here 0.0314 (Humphreys 1979), giving a DEMAND of 2.0 kg/d.

(32)Calculations based on data from Saunders (1963) for lynx preying on snowshoe hares.

(33)Brand et al. (1976)

(34)Calculations based on data reviewed by O’Donoghue et al. (1998) for lynx preying on snowshoe hares.

(35)According to O’Donoghue et al. (1998), the demand of Canadian lynx equals about 0.45 hares/d, i.e. 0.59 kg/d.

(36)Jobin et al. (2000)

(37)Okarma et al. (1997)

(38)Calculations as for cheetah but with M = 9000, 15000, 15700, or 21200 g for an average kitten, subadult, adult female, or adult male lynx (Okarma et al. 1997), respectively, giving a DEMAND of 0.80, 1.2, 1.3, or 1.7 kg/d, respectively.

(39)Van Orsdol (1986)

(40)Reviewed by Green et al. (1984)

(41)Edemand of free-ranging lions is about 270 kJ/kg/d (reviewed by Green et al. 1984), giving with M = 158, 126, or 189 kg for an average adult, female, or male, respectively (Estes 1991), a DEMANDof 6.1, 4.9, or 7.3 kg/d, respectively.

(42)Bothma and le Riche (1986)

(43)Calculations as for cheetah but with M = 50000 (Estes 1991), giving a DEMAND of 3.5 kg/d.

(44)Reviewed by Ackerman et al. (1986)

(45)Ackerman et al. (1986)

(46)Calculations based on data reviewed by Ackerman et al. (1986) for cougars preying on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and porcupines (Erithizon dorsatum). M (mule deer) was set to 58 kg (Ackerman et al. 1986) and M (porcupine) to 5.3 kg (7.1 kg [Smith et al. 2003]  0.75).

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