The Contexts and Theories of Communication

The Contexts and Theories of Communication
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The Contexts and Theories of Communication

Communication, as a field of study, can be understood by examining the contexts in which communication takes place and by reviewing some of the theories that govern how communication works within each context.

Contexts

Communication contexts consist of a blend of the audience being addressed and the social settings in which communication occurs. The contexts range from intrapersonal communication (communication with self) to mass communication (communication with many through mediation).Communication can be broken down into seven contexts: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intercultural, group, organizational, public, and mass (West Turner, 2004).Each context has aspecific purpose.

Intrapersonal

Intrapersonal communication is the communication youhave with yourself.Youare constantly talking and thinking through situations in your mind.In essence,youare having conversations with yourself.Youuse intrapersonal communication to make decisions.Youthink through the situation, determine its significance, examine alternatives, choosea solution, visualize the results, and then act.

Interpersonal

Interpersonal communication is face-to-face communication with people.This includes the communication you have with friends, family, acquaintances, andeven strangers on the street. Interpersonal communication is often considered the richest form of communication.When speaking facetoface, youhave the benefit of nonverbal communication.Nonverbal communication consists of everything but the words youuse.Vocal qualities, facial expressions, and body movements are all part of nonverbal communication.

Intercultural

Intercultural communication takes place between and among people with different cultural backgrounds.Culture influences language, nonverbal communication, rules of communication, word meaning, and time and space concerns.Those influences determine how messages are developed, delivered, and interpreted.

Group

Group communication takes place among the members of a group.A group contains three or more people. In a group, several people work together toachieve acommon purpose (West Turner, 2004).

Organizational

Organizational communication takes place within and among large, extended environments.Individuals communicating within a company belong in this category. One difference between organizational and group communication is that individuals within an organization have a rank.

Public

Public communication is communication fromone person to a large group of listeners.The purpose of the communication maybe to inform, entertain, or persuade. An example of public communication is a potential candidate addressing a large audience at a political rally.

Mass

Mass communication is communication to a large audience through media such as radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet.

Theories

According to West and Turner (2004), a theory is“an abstract system of concepts with indications of the relationship among these concepts that help us to understand a phenomenon” (p. 44). The theories associated with each context help explain why certain types of communication happen the way they do.

Theories of Intrapersonal Communication

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Symbolic interaction theory is based on the research of George Herbert Mead.Researchers at the University of Chicago,Mead and Herbert Blumer, and University of Iowa, Manford Kuhn, worked on the theory (West Turner, 2004).The theory explains the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. Blumer, Mead’s student, identified three core principles ofthe theory: meaning, language, and thought. Through the three core principles, individuals come to conclusions about the self and socialization with a larger community (Griffin, 1997).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance theory is based on the research of Leon Festinger. The theory explains that there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions, such as beliefs and opinions.When there is inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior, the attitude will most likely change to accommodate the behavior (Festinger, 1957).

Expectancy Violations Theory

Expectancy violationstheory is based on the research of Judee Burgoon.The theory considerscommunication as the exchange of information that is high in relational content and can be used to violate the expectations of another, which will be perceived positively or negatively depending on the relationship between the two people (Burgoon, 1978).In essence, the theory focuses on the role of nonverbal communication and its effect on messages: “What we do is more important that what we say” (West Turner, 2004 p. 136).

Theories of Interpersonal Communication

Social Penetration Theory

Social penetration theory is based on the research of Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor.As relationships develop, communication moves from less intimate levels to more intimate, more personal levels (Altman Taylor, 1973).Social penetration refers to a process of relationship bonding whereby individuals move from superficial communication to more intimate communication.The dimensions of intimacy include intellect, emotional, and shared activities (West Turner, 2004, p. 172).

Relational Dialectics

Relational dialectics is based on the research of Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery. The theory explains how parties to communication experience conflicting pulls that causerelationships to be in a constant state of flux. The closer individuals become to one another, the more conflict will arise to pull them apart (Baxter, 1988).People are not always able to resolve contradictory elements in their beliefs, and they hold inconsistent beliefs about relationships (West Turner, 2004, p. 205).

Communication Privacy Management Theory

Communication privacy management theory is based on the research of Sandra Petronio. The theory explains the process that people use to manage the relationship between concealing and revealing private information.According to the theory, individuals make decisions on what to tell (reveal) and what not to tell (conceal) others (West Turner, 2004, p. 221).

Theories of Intercultural Communication

Communication Accommodation

Communication accommodation is based on the research of Howard Giles. The theory explains some of the reasons for changes to speech as individuals attempt to emphasize or minimize the social differences between themselves and others.Perceived differences maybe related to age, accent, ethnicity, or pace of speech. According to the theory, individuals adapt their communication—speech and gestures—to accommodate others (West Turner, 2004, p. 494).

Muted Group

Muted group is based on the research of Cheris Kramarae. The theory explains why certain groups in society are muted, which means they are either silent or not heard.Kramarae found that the language of a culture does not serve all members equally.Some groups maybe subordinate and are not as free to say “what they wish, when, and where they wish” (West Turner, 2004, p. 477).

Face-Negotiation

Face-negotiation is based on the research of Stella Ting-Toomey. The theory explains how different cultures manage conflict and communication. The theory explains that the root of conflict is based on identity management on individual and cultural levels.The theory uses the terms face and facework. Face is used to mean self-image, which is the public image that people display (West Turner, 2004). Facework “pertains to how people make whatever they’re doing consistent with their face” (West Turner, 2004, p. 448).

Theories of Group Communication

Groupthink

Groupthink is based on the research of Irving Janis. Groupthink is associated with small-group communication. The theory explains thatindividuals may withhold their opposing opinions to promote cohesiveness. Individuals may also withhold their opposing opinions because they fear rejection by the group (West Turner, 2004).

Theories of Organizational Communication

Organizational Cultural Theory

Organizational cultural theory is based on the research of Clifford Geertz, Michael Pacanowsky, and Nick O’Donnell-Trujillo. The theory explains meanings for routine organizational events, thereby reducing the amount of cognitive processing and energy members need to expend throughout the day.Organizations can be understood by looking at the organization’s values, stories, goals, practices, and philosophies. “Culture is something an organization is” (West Turner, 2004, p. 275).

Organizational Information Theory

Organizational information theory is based on the research of Karl Weick.The theory explains how organizations make sense of the information that is essential for their existence. The theory draws from other theoretical perspectives that explain the processes organizations undergo when collecting, managing, and using information (West Turner, 2004, p. 294).

Theories of Public Communication

Rhetoric/Dramatism/Narrative Paradigm

The rhetoric/dramatism/narrative paradigm is based on the writing of Aristotle and the research of Kenneth Burke and Walter Fisher. The theory explains that people are essentially storytellers who make decisions on the basis of good reasons. History, biography, culture, and character determine what we consider good reasons. “Rhetoric is an attempt to show speakers that to be persuasive with their audiences, they should follow some suggestions.The advice includes looking at the speech, considering the speaker, and analyzing the audiences.Dramatism pertains to the important role that the public plays in speech making. . .The Narrative Paradigm proposes to look at the audience as participants in a storytelling experience” (West Turner, 2004, p.311).

Theories of Mass Communication

Agenda-Setting Theory

Agenda-setting theory is based on the research of Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw. The theory explains that mass media hasa majorinfluence on audiences by choosing what stories are newsworthy and how much prominence and space to give them.Individuals with similar media exposure place importance on similar issues (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

Spiral of Silence Theory

Spiral of silence theory is based on the research of Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann. The theory explains why people tend to remain silent when they feel that their views are in the minority (Noelle-Neumann, 1991).Noelle-Neumann used public opinion as the background to explain the three assumptions that support the theory.“Society threatens deviant individuals with isolation; fear of isolation is pervasive.The isolation causes an individual to try and assess the climate of opinion at all times. Public behavior is affected by public opinion assessment” (West Turner, 2004, p. 412).

Conclusion

This review of the contexts and some of the theories of communicationprovide a basis for the study of communication.Coursesin specific areas of communication build onthe presented theories and add more for examination.

References

Altman, I., & Taylor, D. A. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Baxter, L.A. (1988). A dialectical perspective on communication strategies in relationship development. In S. Duck (Ed.).Handbook of personal relationships, 257-273. New York, NY: Wiley.

Burgoon, J.K. (1978). A communication model of personal space violation: Explication and an initial test. Human Communication Research, 4, 129–142.

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

McCombs, M., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of the mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176–185.

West, R. & Turner, L. (2004). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.