The Cyclical Nature of History and Mythology in The Late Roman Republic
Michael Gilroy
Spring 2007
History Department
Senior Evaluation
Throughout time, mythology and history have cyclically influenced one another. The meanings behind many historical events have been esoteric, while others were steeped in widely held religious beliefs of the time. The mythological beliefs of Classical Civilizations have changed the course of history and directly impact how the past is perceived. The history of Ancient Rome affected its mythology, which cyclically affected history. History and myth directly influenced each other in the Roman Republic through the actions of Julius Caesar, his predecessors, and successors. Roman and Greek historians were similarly affected by myth, which impacted the way history was recorded and is now perceived. Mythology impacts history, which in turn changes mythology. This cycle is found throughout history, especially in the late Roman Republic. It is impossible to separate the history from the mythology if one hopes to achieve a holistic view of the Ancient World.
The mythological origins of Rome heavily contributed to the citizen’s social identity. The traditional origin of Rome is that Aeneas, a Trojan War hero and son of Venus, escaped the destruction of Troy with his father and son. He searched the Mediterranean for a suitable location for a new settlement, as the gods foretold he would. After many adventures, he settled on the Italic Peninsula. He established the city of Lavinium. Aeneas’s heir founded the city of Alba Longa, the birthplace of Romulus and Remus[1].
Generations later, Mars (the god of war) impregnated Rhea Silva (the daughter of the true king) who gave birth to Romulus and Remus. Amulius, the brother and murderer of King Numitor, tossed babies Romulus and Remus into the Tiber River because he feared their claim to the throne. The babies washed ashore and a she-wolf nursed them. A shepherd raised them and told them of their lineage. As young men, they slew the tyrant, restored their kingdom, and set off in hopes of founding their own city. They found the Seven Hills of Rome and began to construct it. Brothers often quarrel, and Romulus and Remus were no exception. Romulus murdered Remus over a dispute involving the approval of the gods, borders, and naming rights. With his brother eliminated, Romulus founded Rome. He founded the first of the Roman Legions, and the patrician class with the first people of Rome. However, Rome needed more citizens. Romulus declared Rome a sanctuary and offered amnesty to criminals. Wanted men and exiles flocked to the city. Unfortunately, the city lacked women. Romulus invited the neighboring Sabine tribes to a festival. At the festival, Romulus gave a signal and the men of Rome took the daughters of the Sabines by sword point. This is remembered as ‘The rape of the Sabine women’[2]. Rome was populated, Romulus was the first King and revered as great warlord. After he died, Romulus was deified as Quirinus[3].
The basic origin myth of Rome depicts the first king as a tyrant slayer, brother-killer, and son of Mars. The first citizens were mainly wanted criminals or the outcasts of other societies, while the first women were taken to Rome against their will. These details heavily affected Rome’s national identity. Rome was descended from strong, tough, and ruthless warrior citizens. This gave the city a positive disposition towards war:
“And some say that Romulus himself, being naturally fond of war, and being persuaded by sundry oracles, too, that it was the destiny of Rome to be nourished and increased by wars till she became the greatest of cities.” – Plutarch, Life of Romulus, 14
Romans were proud, and willful. Their army was the pride and joy of the city, because it enhanced Rome’s power and glory[4].
The Roman identity also stemmed from the ideals of the Republic. Freedom was sacred in the eyes of Romans at the time of the Republic. However, freedom went with honor. The point of being free was to enhance the image of oneself and one’s family. This made the Romans highly competitive. Honor had a unique meaning to the Romans:
“The Romans recognized no difference between moral excellence and reputation, having the same word, honestas, for both.” – Tom Holland, Rubicon, p. 5
Roman culture was held together by its religion. The piety of the Romans perplexed the rest of the Ancient World, but also gave them a sense of superiority. Greek historian Polybius agreed:
“But the quality in which the Roman commonwealth is most distinctly superior is in my opinion the nature of their religious convictions. I believe that it is the very thing which among other peoples is an object of reproach, I mean superstition, which maintains the cohesion of the Roman State. These matters are clothed in such pomp and introduced to such an extent into their public and private life that nothing could exceed it, a fact which will surprise many.” – Polybius, The Histories, Book 6 Section 56
The religion, mythology, and society of Rome combined to create its vibrant culture. The focus on military, and personal honor, glory and achievement made it the foremost superpower in the ancient Western world. However, these values are not ideal for supporting a republic. The Roman Republic valued freedom, and the needs of the many outweighing the needs of the few. This paradox inevitably bred men like Caesar and Marius, who corrupted the system in the name of glory and power. In short, Romans loved war-heroes and threw them triumphs in honor of their great victories. However, they feared power and men who gained too much of it.
Gaius Marius is at the beginning of a saga that would end with the destruction of the Republic. Like those who followed him, Marius owed his political career to his military prowess. Marius was beloved by the Roman people; they voted him into power against the wishes of the dominant political party – the Optimates. The Optimates favored tradition, and believed that the Senate should ultimately hold the balance of power. Marius gained his political power from the love of the people. Like most Romans of his time, Marius believed in the mythology of Rome:
“Marius was sensitive to all the superstitions of his day. He believed in oracles; all strange or mystifying phenomena were interpreted as predictions.” – Kildahl, Caius Marius, p.109
Marius looked for such signs on the battlefield, and trusted in his military reforms to gain him victory regardless of the odds. Marius’s military victories earned him many unprecedented honors. He was granted triumphs, a fifteen-day supplication, and was declared the third founder of Rome (after Romulus and Camilus)[5]. Marius was overwhelmed with pride, and was given his sixth consulship as a reward for his actions as General. However, he proved completely inadequate as a serious politician, preferring to have his ‘agents’ manage the politics of the position. This led to a shameful consulship and retirement from politics. However, when Mithradites of Pontus began conquering Roman lands in the East, Marius re-entered public life. Playing politics, Marius used the tribunes to steal supreme military command from the current consul, his former protégé, Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Sulla, like most ambitious Romans, was a politician and a military commander. Romans rarely distinguished between political and military greatness. He gained mass popularity in the Social War, where he first became associated with ‘Fortune’. He earned a consulship following the Social War, and took military command in the East. Marius, whose ambitions had always been for honor through military conquest, persuaded the tribunes to revoke Sulla’s command and make him General in the East. Sulla was enraged, and refused to turn his armies over to Marius. Instead, he caused them to mutiny against their lawful commanders and remain loyal only to him. Sulla marched his army towards Rome[6].
Sulla was guided by a vision to make his historic march on Rome:
“…one night he had a dream, in which he thought the Earth-Mother put thunderbolts into his hands and bade him smite his enemies, who all disappeared when he did so. He arose refreshed and convinced. He now knew what he had to do.” – Baker, Sulla the Fortunate, p.182
Sulla believed that his entire life, and rise to power, was attributed to a great goddess, Venus, who blessed him with fortune. He trusted that this goddess would protect him as he violated Rome’s sacred borders, and trespassed on holy land protected by Jupiter, the most revered god in the Roman pantheon. Sulla successfully took Rome, established a new government, and left for Greece to conquest. While he was away his government was dismantled, and he was sentenced to death in absentia. Sulla marched back to Rome with the full intentions of regaining control of the city[7].
Prior to his return, a lightning bolt struck the temple of Jupiter and set Rome ablaze. This was perceived as a religious portent, a sign that the gods were angry. Sulla marched on Rome again, and took control before the city could be consumed. Later, he used the fire as propaganda. He claimed that the war goddess Bellona had set fire to the temple of Jupiter for him, and claimed that the gods favored his rule[8].
A civil war soon erupted, ending in Sulla’s victory. Sulla proclaimed himself the goddess Fortune’s favorite. He was declared Dictator, and gave himself the title ‘Sulla Felix’ – meaning ‘Fortune’. Sulla’s reign was bloodthirsty, killing many of his political rivals. He reformed the government to fit the Optimates’ agenda, severely repressing any party members of the plebian-supported Populares. Ironically, some of his laws aimed to make it impossible for the Republic to be ruled by a single politician[9]. However, these reforms did not prevent Julius Caesar from rising to power and prominence.
Sulla was a man completely devoted to superstition. His beliefs gave him the willpower and confidence to subject Rome to his dictatorship. History was affected by mythology through Sulla’s actions. Combined with his own personal willpower and ambition, Julius Caesar would also be affected by religion, an influence which would change the course of Western History.
Gaius Julius Caesar is one of the most influential figures in world history. It is arguable that every event in the late Republic, from Sulla to the end of the Republic, set the stage for Caesar, or happened because of him. It is interesting to note the role mythology has played in the life of a figure now regarded as mythic in his own right. Roman religion played a major role in Caesar’s life, from his childhood, to his role as a priest of Jupiter, to the mystic portents surrounding the crossing of the Rubicon, and his eventual downfall.
Caesar’s childhood was surrounded with strict rules and Roman rituals. Childhood in Ancient Rome was infamously harsh. Two out of three babies died before their first birthday, while the infant survivors had only a 50% chance of reaching puberty[10]. Strict parents were viewed as good parents: the stricter the better. Caesar’s mother, Aurelia, likely oversaw every facet of her child’s life, instilling discipline and molding Caesar into the model citizen. According to Tacitus, the role of the ideal mother of this period was “to regulate all household affairs, and attend to her infant race, was, at that time, the glory of the female character.[11]” Aurelia controlled everything from Gaius’s education to his playtime, all with the intention of instilling him with discipline. One of the only existing facts about Caesar’s boyhood is that he enjoyed writing. Although none of these writings have survived it is known that he wrote about heroes and legends such as Oedipus and Hercules[12], showing an early interest in mythology.
In addition to honor, Caesar’s childhood was filled with tales and relics of his family’s mythic past. The Caesar clan claimed lineage from Aeneas, who was a descendant of the goddess Venus[13]. Wax death masks, kept in the family shrine, reminded Gaius of his noble ancestry of patrician magistrates. It was the goal of every Roman son to equal or surpass his predecessors[14]. The godly history of his family was likely ingrained in his mind as a child; the exact impact of this on Caesar cannot be calculated nor underestimated. Although the Caesar family was highly respected, it was neither historically powerful nor influential. Caesar’s father was well respected but was never able to achieve the rank of consul, although he did become Praetor with the help of Marius. Caesar was determined to bring his family into the forefront of Roman society, and display his godly heritage.
Although Caesar almost certainly looked to his father for inspiration, very little is written about his relationship with Julius Caesar the Elder. However, it is known that Caesar looked up to the famous general Gaius Marius during his adolescence. Marius married Caesar’s aunt, Julia, to bolster his popularity[15]. Marius took a liking to Caesar, and aimed to help him advance in society. After Lucius Cornelius Merula, priest of Jupiter, committed suicide as a result of the wars between the Populares and the Optimates, Marius arranged to have Julius become the new priest of Jupiter at age 16. It was lucky for Caesar that he was never installed[16]. As a priest of Jupiter, Caesar would have had to observe many ancient rituals. In addition to wearing sacred attire, Caesar would have never been allowed to leave Rome for more than a night, ride a horse or look upon a marshaled army, and would have had to vow to remain monogamous[17]. Judging from Caesar’s later career it is safe to assume he would not have enjoyed his life as a priest.