FORTITUDE:
AFRICAN AMERICAN MOTHERHOOD AND WORK IN STUDENT AFFAIRS
A dissertation submitted
by
Cheree L. Meeks
to
Benedictine University
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
in
Higher Education and Organizational Change
This dissertation has been accepted for the faculty
of Benedictine University
______Eileen G. Sullivan, Ph.D. ______
Dissertation Committee DirectorDate
______Nancy W. Bentley, Ph.D. ______
Dissertation Committee ChairDate
______Tamara V. Korenman, Ph.D______
Dissertation Committee Reader Date
______Sunil Chand, Ph.D. ______
Program Director, FacultyDate
______Eileen Kolich, Ph.D.______
FacultyDate
______Ethel Ragland, Ed.D., M.N.,R.N.______
Dean, College of Education and Health Services Date
FORTITUDE:
AFRICAN AMERICAN MOTHERHOOD AND WORK IN STUDENT AFFAIRS
A dissertation submitted by
Cheree L. Meeks
to
Benedictine University
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
in
Higher Education and Organizational Change
Lisle, Illinois
June 2016
© Copyright by Cheree L. Meeks, 2016
All rights reserved.
DEDICATION
To my love:
Lance Meeks, for always reminding me what is most important and loving me unconditionally
To my heartbeat:
Laila Meeks, you have added indescribable love and joy to my life
To my foundation, my parents:
Dale and Sheila Rawlins, for your unwavering love and always believing in me
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Completing this dissertation was a challenging responsibility that allowed me to acknowledge my inner strength. There is no way that I could have maintained my sanity without relying on the Lord to see me through. I am blessed and know that God brought me to this place so that I might face challenges, overcome them, and become a stronger wife, mother, and scholar because of the experience. I am abundantly blessed and full of joy. I thank the Lord for never giving up on me.
Lance, my wonderful husband and soul mate, thank you for being my rock. You have always been a stable source of support, offering wisdom and encouragement. Thank you for believing in me, comforting me, and celebrating me. Thank you for having a vision for our family and helping me do my part to contribute to us achieving our goals. Thank you for seeing the best in me. Our love keeps getting stronger!
Love is patient,love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud.It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking,it is not easily angered,it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evilbut rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.
1 Corinthians 13:4-8
My precious Laila, you are everything I hoped for in a daughter. You are the greatest blessing and sweetest motivation to strive for excellence. You are the heart and soul of all my dreams. Everything I do is for you. In years to come, I hope you are encouraged by the example I hope to set for you. I love you to the moon and back!
My parents, Dale and Sheila Rawlins, you made me the woman that I am. You instilled in me a lifelong passion for education. Your constant love, support, and confidence in me taught me to shoot for the stars. Mom, you make me feel like the most intelligent woman in the world. Dad, you make me feel like my ideas and aspirations will change the world. I love you both more than you can imagine.
To all of my family and friends that have supported me from the beginning, I am full with gratitude. Thank you to my brother, Dale Rawlins II and to my wonderful father and mother in-law, Albert and Christine Meeks.
To the remarkable women who impacted my journey: Valerie Garr, words cannot express the gratitude I have for you. You are a trailblazer. A woman of confidence and distinction. A change agent. A friend. You have been in my life from the time I was in high school attending information sessions about the University of Iowa and been with me through my incredible undergraduate experience and graduate school. Your support and commitment to underrepresented students is unrivaled. You were the Black female administrator in my life that showed me I mattered and helped me to make sense of my diverse experiences on campus. I strive to be a leader because of your example. Nancy Humbles, I appreciate you for always giving me the straightforward, unfiltered truth, filled with motherly advice and support. Alice Mathis, I thank you for introducing me to the idea of work in student affairs. You helped me get back on track when I was not sure which path to take after graduation. You all have left a legacy through your mentorship and work in student affairs and I intend to do my part to continue the work you have set the foundation for. Thank you for selflessly pouring your wisdom into me. Because of you, I can.
Hilary, my dear friend, who would have known when we met that we would have such a strong, genuine friendship and end up pursuing a doctorate at the same time? I am grateful for our bond, your encouragement, and your energy. We endured many conversations related to our dissertations and the process of writing, and I appreciate you for it. Your concern for my well-being and success as a scholar has raised the bar for me. You constantly remind me that I am amazing. Thank you, Dr. Hilary L. Lichterman!
Committee members, I am so grateful to have you in my corner. Dr. Eileen Sullivan, thank you for your words of encouragement and positive attitude. Your patience and calm spirit was always just what I needed. When I felt overwhelmed and ready to give up, you always had kind words that empowered me to keep moving forward to completion. Your patience and guidance is what moved me through this process. Dr. Nancy Bentley, thank you for being an understanding professor as I was pregnant and delivered my child during your student services course. Your support allowed me to complete the course without skipping a beat. Then, to have you on my committee was a dream come true. Thank you for caring about me as an individual, for pushing me, challenging me, forcing me to think deeply about ideas, concepts, and my writing. Our paths crossed for a reason, and I am forever grateful for you. Dr. Tamara Korenman, thank you for dedicating your time and insight to me on this journey.
Last, but certainly not least, thank you to the 12 courageous women who welcomed me into their lives. Without you, this would not be possible. I thank you for your faith in me to tell your stories. What I learned from each of you is immeasurable. You are all phenomenal, inspiring women who I pray I have made proud.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... xi
ABSTRACT...... xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Statement of the Problem...... 2
Purpose of the Study ...... 3
Research Questions ...... 3
Significance of Study ...... 4
Terms and Definitions ...... 5
Organization of the Study ...... 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8
Historical Perspective and Study Context ...... 8
Women in Higher Education ...... 9
The Romantic Period: 1820-1860...... 9
The Era of Reform: 1860-1890...... 10
The Progressive Era: 1890-1920...... 11
Era of Modern Women: 1920-1945...... 11
Era of Access: 1945-1980 ...... 12
The Coming of Age: 1980-2000 ...... 13
Era of New Beginnings: 2000-present ...... 14
Legal Issues in Education ...... 14
Brown v. Board of Education ...... 14
Race-Conscious Admissions Practices ...... 15
African American Women in Higher Education ...... 17
African American Women Administrators in Higher Education ...... 21
Anna Julia Cooper – “Lifting as We Climb” ...... 23
Lucy Diggs Slowe – “Dean of Women and Champion of Black
Women’s Higher Education”...... 24
Mary McLeod Bethune – “Let Nobody Turn You Around”...... 27
Johnetta Betsch Cole – “Dream the Boldest Dreams”...... 29
Women and Student Affairs in Higher Education...... 30
African American Women in Student Affairs...... 33
Challenges for African American Women in Student Affairs...... 36
Sexism and Racism...... 36
Balancing Personal and Professional Responsibilities ...... 39
Isolation...... 40
Mentoring...... 41
Intersection of Challenges...... 42
Female Identity Theory...... 43
Josselson’s Theory...... 43
Involvement Theory...... 46
Marginality and Mattering...... 46
Career Decisions and Career Choice...... 47
Holland’s Theory of Interests and Career Choice...... 48
Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory...... 48
Mainiero and Sullivan’s Kaleidoscope Model of Careers ...... 50
Motherhood in Student Affairs ...... 51
Summary...... 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY...... 54
Theoretical Framework: Black Feminist Thought...... 55
Positioning the Study within the Qualitative Research Paradigm ...... 59
Research Design: Phenomenological Approaches ...... 61
Hermeneutical Phenomenology ...... 63
Transcendental Phenomenology ...... 63
Phenomenology of Practice...... 64
Principles of Transcendental Phenomenology ...... 65
Epoche (Bracketing) ...... 65
Noema and Noesis...... 65
Phenomenological Reduction...... 66
Moustakas’ Methodological Process ...... 67
Interpretive Worldview ...... 70
Role of Researcher ...... 70
Data Collection Procedures ...... 73
Selection of Participants ...... 73
Data Sources ...... 74
Interviews...... 74
Documents and Artifacts...... 76
Demographic Survey...... 77
Field Notes...... 77
Reflective Journal ...... 77
Data Analysis ...... 78
Ethical Considerations ...... 79
Strategies to Validate Research Findings ...... 80
Limitations of the Study ...... 81
Summary...... 81
CHAPTER FOUR: PROFILES ...... 82
Angela...... 86
Jada...... 89
Keke...... 91
Kerry...... 93
Nia ...... 95
Regina ...... 96
Ruby ...... 98
Sanaa ...... 100
Taraji ...... 103
Tasha ...... 106
Viola ...... 109
Vivica ...... 111
Summary...... 113
CHAPTER FIVE: EMERGING THEMES AS AFRICAN AMERICAN
MOTHERS AND STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONS ...... 114
Mommy Guilt ...... 116
Family Support ...... 118
Mentorship...... 121
Lifting as We Climb ...... 121
Seeking My Reflection ...... 125
Reliance on Spirituality and Faith ...... 129
Navigating Institutional Politics ...... 131
Outsider-Within ...... 136
Sense of Purpose as Mother and Professional ...... 138
Unapologetic, but Not Angry ...... 141
Professional Sacrifice...... 145
Skills from Motherhood Applied to Student Affairs ...... 148
Work Harder and Do More for R-E-S-P-E-C-T ...... 153
Kids at Work ...... 156
Summary ...... 159
CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS..160
What is it Like to Be an African American Mother Working in
Student Affairs?...... 163
Mommy Guilt ...... 163
Mentorship...... 164
Lifting as We Climb ...... 164
Seeking My Reflection ...... 164
Navigating Institutional Politics ...... 165
Outsider-Within ...... 166
Unapologetic, but Not Angry ...... 167
Professional Sacrifice ...... 168
Skills from Motherhood Applied to Student Affairs ...... 168
Work Harder and Do More for R-E-S-P-E-C-T ...... 169
Kids at Work...... 169
What has Influenced the Career Decisions and Career Paths of
African American Mothers Working in Student Affairs...... 170
Family Support ...... 170
Reliance on Spirituality and Faith ...... 171
Sense of Purpose as Mother and Professional ...... 171
Recommendations for Higher Education Leaders ...... 172
Institutional Responsibility Regarding Diversity and Inclusion
Goals with a System of Accountability ...... 172
Review, Assess, and Update Policies and Practices Regarding Hiring, Salary, and Promotion Equity 174
Provide Affordable On-Campus Childcare ...... 176
Contribute Funds and Support Participation in Professional
Development and Professional Associations ...... 176
Create a Leadership Development Institute for Women ...... 177
Offer Cultural Awareness Training to Debunk Stereotypes ...... 177
Recommendations for Future Research ...... 178
Researcher’s Reflections ...... 179
REFERENCES ...... 183
APPENDIX A: INVITATION FOR PARTICIPATION ...... 207
APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT FORM ...... 208
APPENDIX C: DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY ...... 210
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE ...... 212
1
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:Participants’ Personal Information ...... 83
Table 2:Participants’ Professional Information...... 84
1
ABSTRACT
This study examines the ways in which 12 African American mothers experience working in student affairs at a four-year institution and explores the ways in which those experiences impact the career decisions and career paths of these women. For this qualitative, phenomenological study, I incorporated in-depth interviews, and document and artifact analysis to highlight the participants’ experiences, perceptions, and motivations. This exploration incorporated Black Feminist Theory as a framework for interpretation. The results of the study led to the identification of 12 major themes: (1) Mommy Guilt; (2) Family Support; (3) Mentorship; (4) Reliance on Spirituality and Faith; (5) Navigating Institutional Politics; (6) Outsider-Within; (7) Sense of Purpose as Mother and Professional; (8) Unapologetic, but Not Angry; (9) Professional Sacrifice; (10) Skills from Motherhood Applied to Student Affairs; (11) Work Harder and Do More for R-E-S-P-E-C-T; and (12) Kids at Work. The two sub-themes that emerged under the Mentorship theme were: (1) Lifting as We Climb and (2) Seeking My Reflection.
This study contributes to the literature by specifically addressing experiences of African American mothers working in student affairs and the intersection of these roles and identities. The results of the study are intended for higher education leaders who seek to create an environment that welcomes and encourages the success, career advancement, and leadership development of African American mothers working in student affairs. Six recommendations are presented as strategies for higher education leaders to create an inclusive environment for African American mothers that supports career advancement and professional development.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
To be truly visionary
we have to root our imagination
in our concrete reality
bell hooks
The importance of institutions of higher education has been renewed by President Barack Obama, who set a goal for the United Statesto once again hold the status of having the highest proportion of college graduates in the world by 2020 (White House, 2009). Student success and persistence to graduation is impacted by the collegiate experience, which includes both academic and non-academic experiences. The division of Student Affairs is a critical component of thathigher education experience (NASPA, 2013). The work in which student affairs professionals engage is often in the form of teaching, advising, counseling, and mentoring students outside of the classroom, which contributes to students’ lifelong journey of growth and self-exploration (NASPA, 2013).
There is significant room for expansion on research as it relates to women in higher education, specifically in student affairs. In addition, there is little research that explores the experiences that offer insight on personal and professional influences that impact the decisions of women to maintain a career in student affairs. Even less research exists that specifically explores the personal and professional influences on the career choices of African American mothers working in student affairs (Jackson & O’Callaghan, 2009). Existing research has failed to explore the intersection of the personal and professional lives of African Americanmothers (Bell & Nkomo, 2001).
Statement of the Problem
As the United States continues to become a more diverse and multicultural society, the demographics of American institutions of higher education also change. There has been growth in the number of first generation college students, low-income students, international students, and English language learners. These changes and growth in nontraditional student populations demand a need for an increased number of racially and culturally diverse faculty and staff. According to Guillory (2001), the “descendants of European immigrants will no longer determine the dominant culture” (p. 111). Demographics of faculty, staff, and administrators at institutions of higher education are important. As colleges and universities face demands to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse society, the changing status of employment in higher education, and the impending wave of academic retirements, it will be important for educational leaders to find ways to address the opportunity for representation of diverse leadership growth (Jackson & O’Callaghan, 2009; Moses, 2009). Likewise, diversity within higher education contributes to attracting students and employees from increasingly diverse and competitive markets (Miller & Toma, 2011). This demonstrates the importance of having student affairs professionals that are reflective of the demographics of the student body.
In Black Women in Academe: Issues and Strategies, education scholar Yolanda Moses (1989) posed a number of relevant questions to begin a discussion and exploration of African American women on college campuses across the United States. Two questions that are relevant to this study are: (1) Who are the African American women on campus today? and (2) Are their experiences adequately documented? As society continues to change and the demographics of the population transform, these questions remain relevant.
Research regarding African American women in student affairs is virtually nonexistent (Henry, 2010). In part, I seek to fill that void with this study. Exploring how African American mothers working in student affairs experience their dual position as mother and student affairs professional and how they make meaning of those experiences offers a unique lens and contribution to the limited existing literature.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this qualitative,phenomenological study is to contribute to the body of knowledge regarding African American mothers in student affairs. In particular, I explore eventsthat have influenced the life experiences and career decisions of African Americanmothers in student affairs positions at four-year institutions. This exploration incorporates Black Feminist Theory as a framework for interpretation.
Research Questions
The purpose of the study was to examine the lived experiences and perceptions of a small group of African Americanmothers working in student affairs at four-year institutions and the personal and professional influences on their career decisions and career paths. The research was guided by the following central research questions:
- What is it like to be anAfrican Americanmother working in student affairs?
- What has influenced the career decisions and career paths of African Americanmothers working in student affairs?
Significance of Study
The experiences of African Americanstudents and staff at institutions of higher education in America have a long history and stories that deserve to be told. I would like to provide space in the literature for the voices of African American mothers who have experienced discrimination based on race and gender, isolation, lack of support systems and networks, and unwelcoming environments. A small group of African American mothers (both single and married) working in student affairs were the focus of this study in order to learn more about how the experiences of this historically marginalized group impact their career paths and career decisions.
African Americanwomen are often left out of research as a specific group and instead generalized in groups with White women or African Americanmen. I have presented research that is directly focused on African Americanmothers working in student affairs. It is important to research African Americanwomen, specifically African Americanmothers, as a separate group because their experiences are unique in many ways. In an effort to ground this study theoretically, Black Feminist Thought was utilized to provide a specific framework regarding this particular population and their career decisions. Collins (1991) contends that “Black Feminist Thought consists of specialized knowledge created by Black women which clarifies a standpoint of, and for, Black women. In other words, Black Feminist Thought encompasses theoretical interpretations of Black women’s reality by those who live it” (Collins, 1991, p. 22).