Subject Content in Swedish Physical Education
Mikael Quennerstedt
Örebro University, Sweden
Department of Health Sciences
Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Glamorgan, 14-17 September 2005
Key words: Physical Education, subject content, discourse, transaction
The subject content in Swedish Physical Education (PE) has during the last century been influenced by different traditions. Since 1842 when PE becomes a compulsory subject in the elementary school, Ling-gymnastics with a focus among others on good posture, a strict self-discipline and moral development dominate the content. From the turn of the century the subject is more and more influenced by physiology, and in 1950-1970, PE is almost totally dominated by a physiological discourse (Annerstedt 2005, Lundvall & Meckbach 2004). In 1980 when the subject changes name to ‘Sports’ the content is, apart from physiology, also influenced by sports performance and social development (Lundvall & Meckbach 2004, Sandahl 2005). Today, PE in Sweden is named Physical Education and Health, and Claes Annerstedt (2005) states that the change of name from ‘Sports’ to ‘Physical Education and Health’ together with the new syllabi implies that health could be seen as the main focus for PE in Sweden[1]. The historian Björn Sandahl (2005) regards this as a paradigm shift were a one-sided focus on physiology is replaced with a concept of health where exercise together with different aspects of body movement, food, aesthetics, outdoor life and social- and psychological wellbeing are all seen as aspects of health in PE. Health is in the national syllabi described as physical-, psychological and social wellbeing and one can say that it is a subject for ‘health (with)in motion’ described in the syllabi.
This paper focuses on the subject content in Swedish Physical education, identifying institutionalized discourses in local curriculum documents in Swedish PE. The paper takes its point of departure in pragmatism and discourse theory and in the following I will first, as presented in Quennerstedt and Sundberg (2004), briefly discuss pragmatism and discourse theory as a way to understand and analyze the institutional dimension of meaning making in PE. Secondly I will present the results of the analysis of the discourses which the pupils, via the teacher, meet in PE and which in accordance with John Dewey’s transactional perspective can be seen as an aspect of meaning making in PE. Thirdly I will discuss the subject content in Swedish PE in terms of dominating discourses, privileged actions and meaning making.
To Analyse Discourses as an Institutional Aspect of Meaning Making in PE
As elaborated in Quennerstedt and Sundberg (2004), John Dewey’s transactional perspective on meaning making (Bentley & Dewey 1949) is used in the paper in the understanding of how people create meaning by means of their actions in specific situations, in individuals’ transactions with the surrounding environment. The participants, what constitutes our environment, as well as ourselves, are involved in and is constituted in transaction. The constant reconstruction of our environment and ourselves leads according to Dewey (Bentley & Dewey 1949) to different patterns of action in terms of habits or reflective actions. These patterns allow us to see the world as being more structured and meaningful, which result in future transactions being more detailed and specific. One can say that in transactions we create meaning, we broaden our world and create different possibilities of action – we learn.
So to understand something transactionally is thus to understand phenomena as being mutually constituting (Altmann & Rogoff 1987). But Barbara Rogoff (1995) points out that when analyzing a practice in a transactional perspective one can adopt differing analytical foci. This allows for the possibility of how one can relate to the process of transaction in terms of institutional, the intersubjective and the individual as mutual and interacting aspects of meaning making within a practice (Rogoff 1995). The aspect of particular interest in this paper is the institutional aspect of meaning making in PE, and with the help of Dewey, meaning making processes in our transactions with our environment is made possible to understand. But how can I study patterns and regularities in an institutional practice in a transactional approach?
In Quennerstedt and Sundberg (2004) we argue that in an institutional practice, certain specific actions are created which structure or make up a field of possible actions (Sullivan 2001). These actions form patterns and regularities – discourses – and by applying discourse theory and discourse analyses, a better understanding of these patterns in an institutional practice can be gained. The institutionalized discourses constitute the subject content which the pupils, in some way, must relate to by orienting themselves towards, following, contradicting, refusing or ignoring by means of “…possibility of action on the action of others” (Foucault 1982, s 345).
In this study I analyse the institutionalised aspect of meaning making in PE by analysing local curriculum documents (‘local work plans’ and ‘local grading criteria’) from 116 schools in Swedish compulsory school. The curriculum documents are regarded as important documents in the goal and result governed education the Swedish school system represent. In these documents teachers express, as Swedish studies show (Tholin 2003, Österberg 1998), the purposes, the goals and the ways the teacher together with the pupils work towards the nationally set goals, in this case in PE. The documents are in the study thus seen as reports of the subject content in terms of discourses institutionalised in the practice of PE.
Discourse analysis is as Stephanie Taylor (2001) bring forward about identifying patterns. In the study a discourse is identified as Philip Manaughten (1993) suggests by patterns in actions it legitimates or promotes. The identified patterns are further verified by regularities over time in historical studies of Swedish PE and regularities in relation to other studies focusing the subject content in Swedish PE today. Discourses in this study can then in accordance with Mcnaughten (1993) be described as patterns and regularities in action.
Subject Content in Swedish PE
As discussed earlier the local curriculum documents are regarded as reports of the subject content in PE in terms of discourses institutionalised in its practice. The institutionalised subject content in PE is then constituted by the composition of discourses in the practice. This implies that different discourses can be present at the same time and be interwoven in the various activities in PE.
The discourses identified in the study of the local curriculum documents are activity discourse, social development discourse, risk discourse, nature experience discourse, hygiene discourse and moral discourse. These discourses represent different patterns and regularities in action identified in the documents. Within the frame of the activity discourse four ‘sub-discourses’ can be identified. This means that they share some distinguishing features, but can at the same time be separated as different discourses by the different actions promoted. These discourses are physiology discourse, sport discourse, motor development discourse and body experience discourse.
In Physical education the pupils, via the teacher, meet these discourses and can thus be regarded as the subject content offered to the pupils. The identified discourses then constitute in accordance with the transactional perspective an aspect of meaning making in PE, an aspect the pupils must relate to by orienting themselves towards, following, contradicting, refusing or ignoring
Activity discourse[2]
The activity discourse is distinguished by actions promoting an active participation. This means that the pupils should have
…a high degree of attendance, that is to change clothes and participate in an active manor during classes.
An active participation means that you work to the best of your abilities[3]. (local curriculum document)
The discourse is also distinguished by a wide variety of different activities like; soccer, aerobics, skiing, african dance, athletics, basketball, step-up, new trends in sports, play or folkdance. The active participation and the variety of activities are expected to lead to a joy in movement and a lasting life-long interest in movement activities. An aspect of the discourse is that human beings have a natural need of movement and also an inherent inclination for movement.
The overall aim of the subject is to stimulate the inherent inclination for movement and thus give the
foundation to a lasting interest in a continually physically active life. If we can reach this aim there are good conditions for a good health and with that a more rich life for the pupil. (local curriculum document)
The activity discourse has been identified in documents from all of the schools in the study, and also constitutes a large part of the texts, especially when the ‘sub-discourses’ are included. But some activities like dance, outdoor-life, swimming and orienteering that are focused in the national syllabi are not that common in the local curriculum documents. The activities offered do not seem to fulfil the wide variety of activities in the activity discourse. Is it so that the teachers’ choice of activities rather can be understood within one of the ‘sub-discourses’ identified in the documents?
Physiology discourse[4]
In the physiology discourse different forms of physical exercise is promoted. In the activities the pupils are to develop knowledge about exercise and to train physical qualities like aerobic fitness, coordination, agility and endurance. Physical activity is motivated by the physical benefits of that activity. Physical training and the importance of regular exercise, muscular training and the creation of training programs are important elements of the discourse. The pupil is expected to:
… have an understanding of the concept of training and also have the ability to form an individual training program which maintains or improves health…(local curriculum document).
A distinguishing characteristic is also that the activities in PE should be effective regarding aerobic training and thus lead to a good physical capacity. The pupils should
Be able to be moderately physically active during 20 minutes. For example jogging 1000 meters without
stopping, or walking at a fast pace for 20 minutes etc. (local curriculum document)
It is not uncommon that grades are set on pupils’ physical capacity in terms of fitness tests, push-ups or sit-ups.
Choices of activities are foremost made from the point that the activity should give a good fitness training, or knowledge about physical training based on scientific facts mainly from physiology and anatomy.
In the theoretical elements the pupils learn basic knowledge about the human body: anatomy, physiology, aerobic training, nutrition etc. (local curriculum document)
The pupils are also to gain an understanding of the association between diet, exercise, rest, and general well-being. This is justified by applying physiological guidelines that state that physical exercise is healthy. Pupils are to:
Understand the connection between food, exercise and health by means of receiving regular physiological explanations and definitions of training. (local curriculum document)
The point of departure here is in physiological models of explanation, and that physical activity is good for health per se.
Sport discourse[5]
As discussed in connection with the activity discourse the activities offered often is different kinds of sports. This means that the sport discourse is clearly embedded in the activity discourse. But what separates the sport discourse from the other ‘sub-discourses’ is a focus on techniques, rules, results and performance in sports as it is performed in elite-sports. In the documents there is mainly the specific techniques, skills and tactics in sports that distinguish the discourse. The pupils shall in the frame of the sport discourse develop
Basic knowledge in the more common sports. Show in actions that they understand basic techniques and rules in different sports. (local curriculum document)
The pupils shall also
Show good technical and tactical skills in most ball-games. […] Have basic knowledge in techniques used in athletics. (local curriculum document)
Technique is sometimes focused on the basis of best possible results and in some cases good results in different sports is used in the grading of the higher marks. To compete on the other hand can’t be identified in the material in terms of importance to win, but rather in terms of the ability to handle winning and loosing.
Good winners and good losers, defuse the element of competing. (local curriculum document)
The element of competition is regarded as ‘natural’ in the discourse, but in the specific context of PE it should be toned down.
Motor development discourse[6]
The motor development discourse is characterized by activities whose purpose is to train motor skills and qualities like running, jumping, throwing, walking, climbing, crawling, catching etc. The discourse is distinguished by concepts like body control or body awareness. Motor development also is a central element in the national syllabi for an example in year five the pupils should
Be able to manage basic motor activities and perform movements with balance and body control…
(Skolverket 2000, p 2)
This national goal is the starting point of many activities within the motor development discourse and is often quoted in the local curriculum documents.
Body experience discourse[7]
In the local curriculum documents actions or activities aiming for positive body experiences can be identified. Important characteristics in the discourse are activities distinguished by joy, spontaneity, aesthetics, creativity, expressions and experiences in movement. In some schools the aim of all activities in PE is to
…be dominated by movement and joy in movement. (local curriculum document)
Activities described are mainly in play and in movement in general, not so much in sports. The purpose of the activities is to create
…a spontaneous and lasting joy in movement, and to stimulate the children’s natural need for play and movement. (local curriculum document)
The discourse is also distinguished by aesthetical qualities. Aesthetics is within the discourse described in terms of imagination, rhythm and aesthetics in movement.
Social development discourse[8]
Another central discourse identified in the local curriculum documents is a social development discourse. The discourse is characterized by different social qualities and social abilities. Actions promoted in the discourse are foremost activities aiming to develop the ability to co-operate. But also other social qualities are described.
The pupil shall develop social competence as: tolerance towards difference, respect for others, ability to co-operate, show consideration for others, wanting to help classmates. (local curriculum document)
Co-operation is often seen as a given effect of team-sports, but is also described as a main element in various co-operation training exercises. Also good relations between pupils are a distinguishing feature in the discourse. The pupils should develop an
…understanding that factors like rules, consideration for others, humility and respect for each other affect the well-being and the learning in the group. (local curriculum document)
Social qualities like the ability to help others or to contribute to solve conflicts in a constructive way are in some cases necessary to get one of the higher grades in PE.
Nature experience discourse[9]
The nature experience discourse is distinguished by actions in nature where the encounter with nature is in focus and also a focus on positive experiences of nature by being out-doors. Important to point out is that not all out-door activities are identified within the nature experience discourse, for an example sports-activities or physical training out-doors is rather related to the sports- or the physiology discourse.
The purpose to be out-doors are within the frame of the discourse mainly that pupils
Through being in nature develop a positive relation to animals and nature. (local curriculum document)
And in the long run to
Strengthen the commitment to protect and care for nature and for the environment. (local curriculum document)
An important part of the discourse is knowledge about the Swedish right of common access (allemansrätten).
The pupil should know that you for an example can’t break branches off trees, pick protected plants, litter and not walk on newly sowed fields. (local curriculum document)
The activities described in the discourse is mainly activities like practical out-door skills and different modes of transport in nature like walking, biking or skiing,
The use of tools for outdoor cooking, put a tent up, make a fireplace. (local curriculum document)
The skills and the activities are motivated by making positive experiences in and of nature possible.
Risk discourse[10]
In the analysis a discourse can be identified that partly overlaps and partly differentiates itself from the physiology discourse, namely a risk discourse. The risk discourse is in agreement with the physiology discourse in the way they both focus on the individual, biological aspects of the body with reference point in the natural sciences. However, it differs in that it has a more clear preventative approach. It also shows a different language use to describe how movements are to be carried out in for an example ergonomically correct way. The discourse is grounded in a concept of health where health is about preventing various injuries and also focusing on questions that involve ergonomics, safety, warming up and stretching.
In the discourse activities are about identifying, preventing and manage different risks or injuries.
An awareness of your body’s possibilities and needs, and how injuries can be prevented and avoided in everyday situations. (local curriculum document)
It is not the aerobic training in movement that is focused in the risk discourse, but rather elements of injury prevention.
Hygiene discourse[11]
In the frame of the hygiene discourse it is considered important that pupils learn the basics of good hygiene e.g. showering and changing clothes in connection with physical activity. Pupils should:
Have knowledge of general hygiene – showering. (local curriculum document)
Showering is sometimes even part of the requirements of an approved pass level in the subject. Hygiene is sometimes justified with health and sometimes described as something you ‘naturally’ do after physical activity.
Moral discourse[12]
A discourse mainly identified in the grading criteria in the local curriculum documents is a moral discourse. The moral discourse is distinguished by desirable behavioural aims like be on time and bring the right clothes and equipment. In some cases it also concerns behavioural aims in relation to the teacher where the pupil are supposed to: