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YOUNGCHILDRENINIMMIGRANTFAMILIESFACE HIGHERRISK OF
FOOD INSECURITY
ByRandy Capps, Ph.D.,AllisonHorowitz, B.A.,KarinaFortuny,B.A.,JacintaBronte-Tinkew,Ph.D. andMarthaZaslow,Ph.D. February2009
OVERVIEW
Childreninimmigrantfamiliesaremorelikelythanchildreninnative-born familiestofaceanumberofrisk factorsforpoordevelopmental outcomes,includinghigherpovertyrates,lowerhouseholdincomes,and linguisticisolation,(forexample,whenolderchildrenandadultsinahousehold havedifficultyspeaking English).1-3 Previousresearchsuggeststhatfoodinsecurityissignificantly higheramongchildrenofimmi- grantsthanamongchildrenofnative-bornparents,5 evenaftertakingintoaccountparentalworkstatusand familyincome.1 Researchalsosuggeststhatfoodinsecurityishigheramonglessacculturatedimmigrants— thosewhohavelimitedEnglishproficiency(LEP),arenoncitizens,orhavemorerecentlyarrivedinthe UnitedStates.6
New analyses presented in this research brief indicate that levels of food insecurity are higher among infantsandtoddlerswithimmigrantparentsthanamong those with native-born parents. Among these young children,foodinsecurityismorelikelywhenimmigrantparentsarelessacculturated, forinstancewhenthey arenoncitizens, arrivedmorerecently,orhavelimitedEnglishskills.Whenmultiplebackground characteris- ticsareconsideredsimultaneously,parentalcitizenshipinparticularisstronglyassociatedwithfoodsecu- rity—i.e.,infantswhoseimmigrant parentsarecitizensaremorelikelytobefoodsecurethaninfantswhose parents are not citizens. This research provides new insights into the prevalence and factors associated with food insecurity among households with young children of immigrants.
Thisresearch briefdrawsonrecently released datafromthe9-month waveoftheEarlyChildLongitudinal Study–BirthCohort(ECLS-B)topresentaportraitof foodinsecurityamongyoungchildren(infantsand toddlers) with foreign-born parents. This brief also examines factors associated with food insecurity among young children in immigrant households.
DEFININGFOODINSECURITY AND VERY LOWFOODSECURITY
TheU.S.Department ofAgriculture definesfood insecurityas“thelimitedoruncertain availabilityof nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire food in socially accept- ableways.”7Householdfoodsecurityiscategorized in three ranges:
1. High/marginal foodsecurityexistswhenthere arenoindicationsorminimalindicationsofchanges indietor food intake.8
©2009ChildTrends
2. Lowfoodsecurityexistswhentherearereports ofreducedquality,variety,ordesirabilityofdiet, but there is little or no indication of reduced food intake.8
3. Very lowfoodsecurityexistswhenthereare reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake.8
Foodsecurityismeasuredatthehouseholdlevel, andinthisbrief,foodinsecurechildrenaredefined as those living in households with low or very low foodsecurity(thesecondandthirdcategorieslisted
above). Inotherresearch,thetermfoodinsuffi- ciencyisusedtoidentifyhouseholdswithoutthis same leveloffoodinsecurity. Itrefers tohouse- holdsthatreportsometimesoroftennotgetting enoughtoeat.9
PREVALENCE OF FOOD INSECURITY
considermultipledemographiccharacteristicssimulta- neouslytodeterminewhich characteristicscontinueto influence food insecurity after accounting for all other demographic factors.
Figur e2:FoodInsecurit yisMoreCommonf orInf ant swit h
NoncitizenParent st hanf orNat uraliz edCit izenParent s
AND VERYLOWFOODSECURITY AMONG YOUNG CHILDRENOF IMMIGRANTS
Our analyses confirm previous research that suggests thatfood insecuritymaybemorepreva- lent among children with immigrant parents than childrenwithU.S.-bornparents. Figure1 shows theprevalenceofhouseholdswithfoodinsecu-
2522.3
20
1511
10
5
0
4
2.3
NoncitizenParents
NaturalizedCitizen
Parents
rityandverylowfoodsecurityforasampleof
youngchildrenofimmigrants,comparedwitha sampleof young childrenof U.S.-born parents.
Nearly two in ten infants with immigrant parents (18.8percent), butjustoveroneinten infantswithnativebornparents(11.3percent) lived infoodinsecurehouseholdsin2001-02, while3.5 percentof infants with immigrant parentslivedinhouseholdswithverylowfood security(compared with 2.5 percent of infants in native-bornfamilies).
Thefollowing sectionisamorein-depth examination oftheprevalenceoffoodinsecurity among young children of immigrants only (i.e., with two foreign-born parents or a singleforeign- born parent). We first look at markers of accul- turation, asking whether each of these separately predictlowandverylowfoodsecurity.Wethen
Figure1: NearlyTwoinTenImmigrantHouseholdswithInfants(18.8%) ReportFoodInsecurity
FoodInsecurity VeryLowFood
Security
Source:EarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy- BirthCohort,9-monthsurvey
WHEN CONSIDEREDINDIVIDUALLY, WHAT MARKERSOFACCULTURATION ARE ASSOCIATEDWITHFOODINSECURITY?
Children with noncitizen parents were twice as likelytoexperience foodinsecurity than thosewith naturalizedcitizenparents. Figure 2 shows the prevalence of household foodinsecurity and very low foodsecurityamonginfantswithimmigrant parents whohavebecomenaturalized citizenscomparedto those infants with immigrant parents who are not U.S. citizens.
22.3 percent of infants with noncitizen parents
experienced foodinsecurity, compared with 11 percent of infants with naturalized parents.
4percentofinfantsofnoncitizenparentsexperi-
encedvery lowfood security,comparedwith2.3per- centof infantswithcitizenparents.
Infants with immigrantparentswho were recent
2018.8
15
10
5
0
11.3
3.5
2.5
ImmigrantParents
U.S.-BornParents
arrivalsto the United States were more likelyto liveinfoodinsecure households than infants with parents who had lived in the country longer. Figure 3 shows the prevalence of household food insecurity and very low food security for infants with recently-arrivedimmigrantparents(thosewho have beenintheUnited Statesforlessthan12years)and amonginfantswithlonger-term immigrantparents (thoseinthe U.S.for12ormoreyears). Twelveyears wastheaveragelengthofU.S.residencyforimmi-
FoodInsecurityVeryLowFoodSecurity
Source: EarlyChildhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort,9-month survey
grantparentsinthesample.
20.8 percent of infants with recently-arrived
parents lived in food insecure households, compared with15.3percentofinfantswithlonger- termimmigrantparents.
Figure3:FoodInsecurityisMoreCommonforInfantswithRecently- ArrivedImmigrantParentsthan Longer-TermImmigrantParents
infood insecurehouseholds,comparedwith10.3 percentof infantswithEnglishproficientparents.
While3.7percentofinfantswithLEPparents
lived in households with verylowfoodsecurity, only2.2percentofinfants with English proficient parents lived in such households.
25
20.8
20
15
10
5
0
15.3
3.33.4
Recently-Arrived
ImmigrantParents
Longer-Term
ImmigrantParents
WHATFACTORSARE ASSOCIATEDWITH FOODINSECURITYAMONGYOUNG CHIL- DRENOFIMMIGRANTS WHENMULTIPLE PARENTAL AND FAMILYCHARACTERIS- TICSARECONSIDERED SIMULTANE- OUSLY?
Intheprevioussection, weexaminedtheprevalence offoodinsecurity amonginfantsandfoundrela- tivelyhighratesoverall,especially amonginfants whoseparentswerelessacculturated. Weconsid-
FoodInsecurityVery LowFoodSecurity
Source: EarlyChildhoodLongitudinal Study-BirthCohort,9-monthsurvey
However, similar low proportions of infants withrecently-arrived andlonger-termimmigrant parentslivedinhouseholdswithvery lowfood security (3.3 percent and 3.4 percent, respectively).
Amongchildren ofimmigrants, infantswith Limited EnglishProficient (LEP)parents(those who do notspeakEnglishverywell)weretwiceas likelytolive infoodinsecurehouseholdsthan infants withEnglishproficient parents. Figure4 showstheprevalence ofhouseholdfoodinsecurity amongyoungchildrenofimmigrants accordingto parental English proficiency.
21.2percentofinfantswithLEPparentslived
Figure4:FoodInsecurityisMoreCommonamongInfants withLEP ImmigrantParentsthanEnglishProficientImmigrantParents
25
21.2
eredthesethreemarkersofacculturation separately.
Itispossible thatsomemarkers ofacculturation, along with other key background characteristics, are correlated, and that when considered at the same time, not all would continue to be associated with food insecurity. In this section, we discuss analyses thatmorefullyisolatethefactorsassociated with foodinsecurityamonginfantsinimmigranthouse- holdsbyconsideringasetofpredictorssimultane- ously.Whiletheprevious analyses focusedonindi- catorsofacculturationamong immigrantparents, here we extend the focus to include other demo- graphicfactors, such as parentaleducation,ageand employment.
ParentalCitizenship. Lookingonlyatinfants with immigrant parents, food insecurity and verylowfoodsecurity arelesscommonwhen parents arecitizens thanwhenparents arenot citizens. Infantswhose parentshavebecome naturalizedcitizensareabouthalfaslikelyto live in food insecure households as those whose parentshavenotbecomecitizens. Thismeans
20
15
10.3
10
5
0
3.7
2.2
Limited English Proficient Parents
English Proficient Parents
thatlackofparentalcitizenshipisariskfactor for food insecurity in infants in immigrant households, even with other background characteristics taken into account.
Parental Education. Lower parental educational attainmentisalsoassociatedwith higherlikelihoodoffoodinsecurity,evenwith other background characteristics taken into
FoodInsecurityVeryLowFoodSecurity
Source: EarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy-Birth Cohort,9-monthsurvey
account.Infantswhoseparentshavelessthana
highschooleducation orwhohavecompleted highschoolbutnotcollege haveahigher likelihood oflivinginfoodinsecurehouse- holdsthandoinfants whoseparents have completedcollege.
MaternalAge. Infantswithyoungermothers havehigherodds oflivinginafoodinsecure household than those with older mothers, even with other background characteristics taken into account.
Parental Employment. Infants whose resident fathers are employed full-time are less likelyto live in a foodinsecurehouseholdthan infants whose resident fathers are not working, even when other background characteristics are taken into account.
PublicBenefitReceipt. Infantsinhouseholds that have received food stamps have higher odds of food insecurity than those in house- holds in which no one has received food stamps.
Length of Time in the U.S. and English Proficiency. Wealsoconsideredtheinfluence of parents’ length of U.S. residency and English proficiency as potential influences on infants’foodsecurity. However,wefoundno significant associations between these parental characteristics andhouseholdfoodinsecurity amonginfantswhentakingintoaccountother factors. Lengthof residencyis closelytied withcitizenship(becauselegalimmigrantsusu- ally cannot become citizens until five years after they enter the country), so that once par- ents’ citizenship was accounted for, the length oftimetheyhadbeeninthecountry nolonger hadasignificant association withhousehold food insecurity. Differences in levels of educa- tionamongparentsthat areEnglishproficient andthosewithLEPsimilarly explainmuchof the association between English proficiency andhousehold foodinsecurity (i.e.,lessedu- cated parents are generally LEP).
DISCUSSION
Becausechildreninimmigrantfamiliesareagrow- ingshareofchildrenbornintheUnitedStates,9-10
and because these children have unique experi- ences stemming from the immigrant experiences of their parents, it is important to understand both the prevalence of food insecurity and the factors that may influence its occurrencein immigrant families. Our analyses show that:
Householdfoodinsecurityishigherforinfants with immigrantparentsthanforinfantswith native-bornparents. Food insecurity repre- sents one of several risk factors that children in immigrant families face, and has negative implicationsfor child outcomes such as school achievementandpsychologicalwell-being.4, 16
Thus our findingssuggest thatveryyoung children in immigrant families are highly economicallyvulnerable.
Householdfoodinsecurityisalso higher for infants with less acculturated parents than thosewithmorehighlyacculturatedimmigrant parents. Foodinsecurityandverylowfood securityarehigherfor infantswithless acculturatedparents on all three markers of acculturation analyzed: citizenship, length of U.S. residency, and English proficiency. In fact,infants withparents whoarenaturalized citizensandEnglishproficient havehousehold foodinsecurity rates(10-12percent)compara- bletotherateforinfants withnative-born parents, while the rate for infants whose par- ents are longer-term immigrants (in the country for more than 12 years)is slightly higher (15 percent). Economichardshipforhouseholds withyoungchildrenmay bemuchmoreclosely relatedtofactorssuchascitizenship andEng- lish proficiency than to their nativityperse, since these factors can influence parents’ performance inthelabormarket,theirlevelof socialacculturation, andtheirlegalstandingin U.S. society. Lack of citizenship and limited English skills are amenable to policy interven- tions. Forinstance,lackofcitizenshipcanbe addressedby easierpathwaystocitizenshipand legal residence, and resources for those immigrantswho are eligibleto naturalize. Parental English proficiency can be improved through English language instruction in the workplace, schools,childcarefacilities,and otherlocations.
Whenmultiplebackgroundcharacteristics are
taken intoaccount,parentalcitizenship continuestopredictfood securityamong householdswithinfants. Even aftercontrolling forparentaleducation, parentalwork,maternal age,andfoodstampreceipt, infantswithnon- citizenparentsaremorelikelytoliveinfood insecure households than those with native- born or naturalized citizen parents. Parental citizenshipis an importantfactor—perhaps moreimportantthanlengthofU.S.residency or even English proficiency—in determining the economic well-being of immigrant house- holds with very young children.
Higher parental education isassociated with foodsecurityamonginfantswithforeign-born parents. Infantswithparentswholackahigh schooleducation, orwhohaveahighschool education butnotacollegedegree,areless likelytoliveinfoodsecure householdsthan infants whoseparents haveatleastacollege education. Previous research suggests that food insecurity is lower in households where adultsarebettereducated4,19and ourresults provideadditionalsupportforthisassociation when focusing specifically on immigrant households with infants. Thus, investment in immigrant parents’ education might yield better labor market outcomes as well as better knowledgeofmorecost-efficient foodsources andbetterdietarypracticesfor theirchildren.
ThefederalFoodStampProgram provides impor- tantassistancetofamiliesexperiencingfoodinse- curity. But many households headed by nonciti- zens are ineligiblefor food stamps,includingallof those who are unauthorized and most legal nonciti- zenswithlessthanfiveyears ofU.S.residency. WhiletheirU.S.-bornchildrenremaineligiblefor food stamps, the fact that these noncitizen parents are ineligible leads to lower benefits for these households.22Yet,ouranalysissuggeststhathouse- holds with recently-arrived noncitizen parents need food assistance the most, especially households with infants, whose physical and cognitive devel- opment are highly dependent on regular and suffi- cientnutrition.
CONCLUSION
Overall, the findings presented in this research brief demonstrate higher levels of household food insecurity among infants whose parents are immigrants than native born. Further, while certain demographic characteristics appear to be related to food insecurity among immigrant households in a way that previous research suggests function in the population as a whole (such as parentaleducation, maternal age, and father’s employment), there are factors specific to immigrant households that suggest those with more acculturatedparents experience lowerlevelsoffoodinsecurity. The factorthatemergedasthe most consistentpredictor wascitizenship, withthosehouseholdswithnon- citizen parents experiencing the highest level of food insecurity.
A significantbody of researchdemonstratesthe importance of food security to positive child development,especiallyin theearliestyears.Itis, therefore, important to identify ways to support foodsecurityamongimmigrant familieswithin- fants,withspecialconsiderationgiventofamilies inwhichparentsarenotcitizens.Theinfantsinthe national sampleusedforthisanalysis areallU.S.- born citizenswith the same rights and entitlements as other U.S.-born children; they also represent an importantcomponentof thefuture U.S. workforce. The findings presented in this brief should be seri- ously considered in federal and statepolicydelib- erationsrelatedtofoodandnutrition,earlychild- hooddevelopment,healthcarereform,andimmi- grationreform.
Theauthors wouldliketothanktheEconomic ResearchService(ERS),U.S.Department of Agriculture, forits support ofthis Research Brief.
ChildTrendsisanonprofit,nonpartisan research centerthatstudieschildrenatevery stage ofdevel- opment.Its missionistoimproveoutcomesfor chil- drenbyprovidingresearch,data,andanalysisto thepeopleandinstitutions whosedecisionsand actionsaffectchildren.Foradditionalinformation onChildTrends,includingacompleteset ofavail- ableResearchBriefs, visitourWebsiteat
ABOUTTHEDATAANDMETHODS USEDFORTHISBRIEF
Data: AlldatareportedinthisbriefweretakenfromtheEarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy–BirthCohort (ECLS-B)
9-monthdatacollectionwave. TheECLS-BisthefirstlongitudinalstudyconductedintheUnitedStatestotrackana- tionallyrepresentativesampleofchildrenfrominfancyuntil thetimethattheyenterschool. Thestudyoversamplesim- portantpopulations, suchasAsiansandNativeAmericans,twins,andlowtomoderatelylowbirthweightinfants. Data collectionisoccurringinfivewaves: atapproximately9months,at24months,at48months,atentrancetokindergar- ten,andatentrancetofirstgrade. Theprimarymodesofdatacollectionarein-personinterviews,directchildassess- ments,andvideotapingofmother-childinteractions,alloccurringduringin-homevisits. Informationonchildrenisalso drawn frombirthcertificates.
TheECLS-Boffersseveraladvantages forexamining foodinsecurityandoutcomesforinfantsandtoddlers. First,the studyincludestheUSDAHouseholdFoodSecurityScale.21 TheECLS-Basksaseriesofquestions aboutfoodinsecu- rityinthehouseholdinthe12monthspriortothesurvey. Asaresult,researcherscandeterminewhetherhouseholds werefoodinsecure atanytimeinthepastyearand,ifso,theseverity ofthefoodinsecurity. Second, because thesame childrenarefollowed overaperiodofyears,analyses thatlookateffectsovertimecanbeconducted. Third,aspartof theECLS-Bin-homeinterviews,healthandanthropometric indicators–suchasthechild’sheight,weight,andmiddle upperarmcircumference–anddevelopmentalindicators–suchasmentalproficiency–arecollected. Collectingdata ontheseindicatorsenablesresearchers tocreatevariablesthatassessarangeofoutcomes. Fourth,thesampleincludes largenumbers ofyoungchildren withforeign-bornparents. Approximatelyhalfofthesampleofchildren withforeign- bornparentsisHispanicandtheotherhalfisAsian.
Methods: Forouranalyses,weusedOrdinal Logisticregressionmodels. Alldatawereweightedtoadjustforthecom- plexsampledesignof theECLS-B.
Measures:
HouseholdfoodsecuritywasmeasuredatninemonthsusingtheUSDAHouseholdFoodSecurityScale.7 Anordinal variablewascreatedbasedonparentresponses to18questions regarding avarietyoffoodinsecurity issues(e.g., experiencinghunger,skipping meals,andrunningoutoffood)overthepast12months.Thisvariablewascodedto
identifythechild’shouseholdaseither(0)havinghighormarginalfoodsecurity,(1)havinglowfoodsecurity,or
(2)havingverylowfoodsecurity.
Citizenshipstatuswasmeasuredasadichotomous variable. IfbothparentswerenotU.S.citizens,parents’citizenship statuswascodedasnoncitizen;alternatively,ifoneorbothparentswere naturalizedU.S.citizens,citizenshipstatus wascodedasnaturalizedcitizen.
Parentaleducationindicatesthehighestlevelofeducationattainedbyeitherresidential parentoreducationlevelofthe onlyresidential parentat9months. Itwascodedasfourdichotomousvariables: lessthanhighschool,highschool degree/equivalent,vocationalschool/somecollege,andbachelor’sdegreeorhigher,withbachelor’sdegreeor higherservingasthereferencecategory.
Maternalemploymentwasmeasuredat9monthswithdichotomousvariablesindicatingwhetherthemotherhadfull- timeemployment(35hoursormoreaweek),part-timeemployment(lessthan35hoursaweek),orwasnotworking (eitherunemployedornotinthelaborforce),with“notworking”servingasthereferencecategory.
Receiptofbenefitswasmeasuredusingadichotomousvariablesforreceiptoffoodstamps(whetheranyoneinthe householdreceivedfoodstampssincethebirthofthechild).
Maternalageisacontinuousvariablebasedonthechild’sbirthcertificate.
LengthofU.S.residencywasdetermined basedonparents’reportofhowlong,atthetimeofthe9-monthsurvey,they hadbeenliving intheUnited States. Ifneitherparent hadbeenintheUnitedStatesformorethan12years,parents weretreatedasrecently-arrivedimmigrantsandcodedas(0). IfoneorbothparentshadbeenintheU.S.formore than12years,parentsweretreatedaslonger-term immigrants andcodedas(1). Twelveyearswastheaveragefor immigrantparentsinthesample.
Englishproficiencywasmeasuredbasedonparents’responses,atthetimeofthe9-monthsurvey,tofourquestions about howwelltheycould read, speak,understandandwrite English. Parentswere consideredEnglishproficientif theyindicatedtheycoulddoatleastthreeofthesethings “prettywell”or“verywell.” IfbothparentswereEnglish proficienttheywerecodedas(0). FamilieswhereatleastoneparentwaslimitedEnglishproficient(LEP)were codedas (1).
Note:Householdpovertywasnotincludedasacontrolfactorintheanalysisbecauseofitsveryhighcorrelation with food insecurity.Includingbothvariablesinregressionmodelsresultedinunreliableandinsignificantresults.
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