Marco Polo
(born c. 1254, Venice [Italy], or Curzola, Venetian Dalmatia [now Korcula, Croatia]--d. Jan. 8, 1324, Venice), Venetian merchant, adventurer, and outstanding traveler, who journeyed from Europe to Asia in 1271-95, remaining in China for 17 of those years, and whose Il milione ("The Million"), known in English as theTravels of Marco Polo, became a geographical classic.
Travels of the Polo family
Marco found his way paved by the pioneering efforts of his ancestors and especially of his father, Niccolò, and his uncle Maffeo. The family had traded with the Middle East for a long time, apparently reaching a position of considerable wealth and prestige. Although it is not quite clear if the family was actually of the nobility, the point lost much of its typically medieval relevance in a city of republican and mercantile traditions such as Venice.
The Polos appear to have been shrewd, alert, and courageous; in about 1260 they foresaw a political change in Constantinople, liquidated their property there, invested it in jewels, and set off for the Volga River, whereBerke Khan, sovereign of the western territories in the Mongol Empire, held court at Sarai or Bulgar, according to the season. The Polos seem to have managed their affairs well at this provincial Mongol court, doubling their assets. When political events prevented their return to Venice, they travelled eastward to Bokhara, eventually ending their journey four years later (1265) at the capital of the Mongol Empire, probably the summer residence of the Grand Khan -- calledShang-tu (the Xanadu of the English poetSamuel Taylor Coleridge). Establishing friendly relations with the greatKublai Khan himself, they were
eventually sent back to Europe as Kublai's ambassadors to the Pope, carrying letters asking the Pope to send Kublai one hundred intelligent men "acquainted with the Seven Arts"; they also bore gifts and were asked tobring back some oil from the lamp burning at the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Marco himself had, meanwhile, been born in or around 1254. (This date, like nearly all the others concerning major events in his life, is conjectural.) Nothing is known of his early years in Venice, although it seems fairly certain that he learned little or no Latin. He was a lad of 15 or 16 when he first met his father, on the latter's return from the East in 1269.
Marco's journey to Asia
WhenNiccolò andMaffeo returned, they found that the Pope (Clement IV) had recently died. They waited patiently in Venice for a new pontiff to be elected, but after two years a successor had not yet been chosen. Becoming restive, the Polos started off on their journey, taking the young Marco with them (1271). In Palestine the papal legate, Teobaldo of Piacenza, gave them letters for the Mongol emperor; the Polos had been only a few days on the road when they heard that their friend Teobaldo had been elected pope (Gregory X). They went back to Acre, where they were given proper credentials and the company of two friars. The small expedition departed once more; the two friars, however, soon lost heart, and the Polos continued alone.
From Acre the travellers proceeded to Ayas ("Laiazzo" in Marco's writings, now Yumurtalik, on the Gulf of Iskenderun, also called Gulf of Alexandretta, in southeastern Turkey). During the early part of 1272 they probably passed through Erzurum, in what is now eastern Turkey, and Tabriz, in what is now northern Iran, later crossing inhospitable deserts infested with brigands, before reaching Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. There the Polos decided not to risk a sea passage to India and beyond but to proceed overland to the Mongol capital.
Soon they were on the road again, travelling through deserts of "surpassing aridity" toward the Khorasan region in what is now eastern Iran. Turning gradually to the northeast they reached more hospitable lands; Badakhshan ("Balascian"), in Afghanistan, in particular, pleased the travellers. Marco seems to suggest that they remained here for a year; long illness (possibly malaria) was cured by the benign climate of the district. It has also been supposed that Marco, during this period, visited territories to the south (other parts of Afghanistan, Kafiristan in the Hindu Kush, Chitral in what is now Pakistan, and perhaps Kashmir); it is, however, difficult to establish which districts he traversed and which he may be describing from information gathered en route.
Leaving Badakhshan, the Polos proceeded up the Vakhan ("Vocan") valleys toward the Pamirs, which were eventually crossed by an itinerary that has long been a subject of discussion and conjecture. Descending on the northeastern side of the chain, they reached Kashgar ("Cascar") in what is now the Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Region of China. By now the Polos were on the mainSilk Road, and their advance can be followed along the oases to the south and east of the Takla Makan Desert--Yarkand ("Yarcan"), Khotan ("Cotan"), Charchan ("Ciarcian"), and Lop Nor (Lop Lake)--stepping-stones on the way to Sha-chou ("Saciu") on the borders of China, a place now called Tun-huang (Kansu province).
Before reaching Sha-chou, the Polos had travelled primarily among Muslim peoples--also encountering sprinklings of Nestorian Christians, Buddhists, Manichaeans, and Zoroastrians; now, however, they entered the vast province ofKansu (called "Tangut" by Marco), where an entirely different civilization, mainly Buddhist in religion but partly Chinese in culture, prevailed. Their itinerary most probably took the travellers to Su-chou ("Sukchu") and Kan-chou ("Campiciu") before entering the Ning-hsia area. It is not clear whether the Venetians reached the Mongol summer capital of Shang-tu ("Ciandu") directly or after a detour; at all events, some time in 1275 (1274, according to recent researches by a Japanese scholar, M. Otagi), the Polos were again at the Mongol court, presenting the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron, Kublai Khan.
Marco's sojourn in China.
For the next 16 or 17 years the Polos lived in the Emperor's dominions--which included, among other countries, Cathay (now NorthChina) and Mangi, or "Manzi" (now South China). Possibly they moved with the court from the summer residence, Shang-tu, to the winter one, Ta-tu or "Taidu"--modern Peking.
Unfortunately Marco's book Il milione is only incidentally a biography and autobiography; it is therefore exceedingly difficult to ascertain where the Polos went and what they did during these years. It is well known that many foreigners were in the employ of the Mongol state, since Chinese were mistrusted; it was, therefore, natural for the Polos to fit in most honourably and successfully with this motley society.
But precisely how successfully? In what specific capacities did they make themselves useful? These and similar points have been discussed for centuries without definite conclusions being reached. The elder Polos were probably employed in some technical role. Once and very abruptly, a glimpse is obtained of them acting as military advisers during the siege of "Saianfu" (historically and presentlyHsiang-yang), a city that was finally taken, says Marco, thanks to some "great mangonels" (missile-throwing engines) built according to their specifications. The whole episode is, however, dubious.
Marco himself reached Cathay very young (at the age of 20 or so). Although he knew little or no Chinese, he spoke some of the many languages then used in East Asia--most probably Turkish (in its Coman dialect) as spoken among the Mongols, Arabized Persian, perhaps Mongol, and Uigur Turkish. Marco was noticedvery favourably by Kublai Khan, who took great delight in hearing of strange countries; the Emperor repeatedly sent him on fact-finding missions to distant parts of the empire. One such journey took Marco to southwestern China, to Yunnan, and perhaps as far as Tagaung in Burma; on another occasion he visited southeastern China, later giving an enthusiastic description of the city of "Quinsay" (now Hang-chou) and of the populous regions recently conquered by the Mongols. There is ample evidence that Marco considered himself an adoptive son of his new country.
Marco's reticence concerning personal matters has left a void that has been eagerly filled in by romantic hero-worshippers, who see him as a brilliant young courtier enamouring princesses and governing provinces: indeed, a Marco Polo myth has been current for centuries and has often provided a theme for novelists, filmmakers, or dramatists. On the other hand, more sober critics point out that contemporary Chinese records show no trace of Marco. (But under what name was he known: who would recognize the 16th- and 17th-century Italian missionary Matteo Ricci under Li Matou or the 18th-century painter Giuseppe Castiglione under Lang Shih-ning?) They also observe that his reports sound more like echoes of bazaar gossip than gleanings from inner councils. The truth probably lies somewhere in between. Apart from the missions he undertook for the Emperor, Marco's evident competence in matters pertaining to salt and the administration of its monopoly suggest that he may have held some responsibility in this branch of government. According to some texts of Il milione, Marco governed the city of Yang-chou (in Kansu) for three years, sometime between 1282 and 1287; but this seems hardly credible and hinges entirely on the reading of one word.
The return to Venice.
Some time around 1292 (1290 according to Otagi), a Mongol princess was to be sent by sea to Persia, there to become the consort of Arghun Khan, and the Polos offered to accompany her. It seems that Kublai Khan was unwilling to let them go but finally granted permission. Kublai Khan was then nearing his 80th year, and his death (and the consequent change in regime) might well have been dangerous for a small group of isolated foreigners. They also, naturally, longed to see once more their native Venice and their families.
The Princess, with some 600 courtiers and sailors, and the Polos boarded a fleet of 14 ships, which left the port of Ch'uan-chou ("Zaiton") and sailed southward. The fleet touched Champa ("Ciamba," modern Vietnam), as well as a number of islands and the Malay Peninsula. On the island of Sumatra ("Lesser Giaua") a stop of five months was made to avoid monsoon storms. There, Marco was much impressed by the fact that the North Star appeared to have dipped below the horizon. The fleet then passed near the Nicobar Islands ("Necuveran"), touching land again in Ceylon ("Seilan"). The Chinese ships subsequently followed the west coast of India and the southern reaches of Persia, finally anchoring at Hormuz. The expedition then proceeded to Khorasan, handing over the Princess not to Arghun, who had died, but to his son Mahmud Ghazan.
The Polos eventually departed for Europe, but their movements at this point are not clear; possibly they stayed for a few months in Tabriz. Unfortunately, as soon as they left the Mongol dominions and set foot in a Christian country, at Trebizond in what is now Turkey, they were robbed of most of their hard-won earnings. After further delays, they reached Constantinople and finally Venice (1295). The story of their dramatic recognitionby relatives and neighbours, who had thought them long since dead, is a part of Polo lore that is universally known.
Compilation of 'Il milione' (‘Travels of Marco Polo’-his book)
Soon after his return to Venice, Marco was taken prisoner by the Genoese--great rivals of the Venetians at sea--during a skirmish or battle in the Mediterranean; Marco was then sent to Genoa and locked in one of the local prisons. There a most felicitous encounter occurred. The Venetian traveler met a prisoner from Pisa, who had possibly lost his liberty some 10 years earlier at the Battle of Meloria--oneRustichello (or Rusticiano), a fairly well-known writer of romances and a specialist in chivalry and its lore, then a fashionable subject. Marco may have had it in mind to write a report of his 25 years in Asia but possibly did not feel sufficiently at home in either Venetian orFranco-Italian; but now Rustichello was at hand, and the traveler began dictating his tale. The language employed was Franco-Italian--a strange composite tongue fashionable during the 13th and 14th centuries. Page by page the great book was compiled.
Fortunately Marco was soon freed and returned to Venice. His subsequent life can be reconstructed, in part, through the testimony of some legal documents that have reached us. He seems to have led a somewhat retired life, managing a not too conspicuous fortune, and died at the age of 70. A famous story relates how Marco was asked on his deathbed to retract the "fables" he had invented in his book; his answer was that he barely told half of what he actually saw. It is known that in his will he set free a "Tatar slave," who may possibly have followed him all the way from East Asia.
Nature and content of 'Il milione'
The actual personality of Marco is somewhat elusive. Practically all that is known about him derives from the text of his book; the traditional view is that Marco dictated the text, and certainly many portions sound like transcriptions from a tape recording.
The book itself was an instant success. "Tutta Italia in pochi mesi ne fu piena" ("In a few months it spread throughout Italy"), wroteGiovanni Battista Ramusio, the 16th-century Italian geographer. Unfortunately, however, people read the book for the wrong reasons--not as history, geography, or travel but as a fantastic romance in which Kublai Khan was ranked with King Arthur.
Since all this happened long before the invention of printing, professional scribes or amateurs made dozens of copies of the book, as well as free translations and adaptations--often adding to or subtracting from the text with little or no respect for authenticity. There were also many unfamiliar names that rarely passed unharmed from one copy to another; as a result, modern commentators throw up their hands in despair when confronted with the task of reconstruction. In fact, an authentic and original copy of Il milione does not exist; there are some 140 different manuscript versions of the text, in a dozen different languages and dialects--an immensely complex and controversial body of material representing one of the most obdurate philological problems inherited from the Middle Ages.
Marco seems to have made additions and corrections himself, on various copies of the work, during the last 20 years or so of his life. Some editors--for instance, the friar Pipino, who made a good Latin translation of the original--found many of Marco's descriptions or interpretations impious or dangerously near to heresy and therefore heavily bowdlerized the text.
The book seems to have been conceived by Marco as a vast cosmography based on first-hand experience--the book to end all books on Asia. The original title--Divisament dou Monde ("Description of the World") is significant; Marco all too often sacrifices personal recollections to doctrinal ambitions. Details concerning travel, stages (i.e., distances covered), and seasons are rarely stated; the panorama is observed from an impersonal distance with a powerful wide-angle lens. In Il milione Marco follows a definite itinerary but often branches off into descriptions of places probably visited not by himself but by his relatives or people he knew. Typical digressions are those on Mesopotamia, the Assassins and their castles, Samarkand, Siberia, Japan, India, Ethiopia, and Madagascar. Il milione is better understood if considered as forming a part of thevernacular didactic literature, of which the Middle Ages offer many examples.
The origin of the popular title, Il milione, is not quite clear; it may have source relation with the idea of a "tall story", but it may also derive from a nickname running in the family, possibly traceable back to a corruption of Aemilione (Big Emil). The complete silence of the poet Dante Alighieri regarding his illustrious contemporary seems to be significant; he evidently considered the book a fable, an invention, and a dangerously heretical one at that. Marco's descriptions of peoples living under the Equator, where according to the orthodox views of the times there should have been nobody, may have appeared particularly alarming.
Marco Polo's subsequent reputation
As a result of such controversies, which have continued for nearly seven centuries, Marco's reputation has suffered dramatic ups and downs. For some he was a genius, a man of prodigious memory, a most conscientious observer, and a successful official at the Khan's court--a man at home in the cosmopolitan Asia of the great Mongol rulers. For others he was a braggart, who made too much of himself; a drifter ready to believe the gossip of ports and bazaars; a man with littleculture, scant imagination, and a total lack of humor; a man who failed, among other things, to mention the Great Wall of China, the use of tea, and the ideographic script of the Far East.
A more balanced view must take into account many factors, especially the textual problem and medieval ideas of the world. Modern scholarship and research have, however, given a new depth and scope to his work. It is now generally conceded that he reported faithfully what he saw and heard, even though much of what he heard was fabulous or distorted. In any case, Marco's account opened new vistas to the medieval mind. As Western horizons expanded, Marco's influence became greater and greater. His description of Japan set a definite goal forColumbus in his journey toward the setting sun in 1492, while his detailed localizations of spices encouraged Western merchants to seek out these areas and break the age-old Arab trading monopoly. The wealth of new geographical information recorded by Marco Polo was widely used in the late 15th and the 16th centuries, during the age of the great European ocean voyages.