1
Wellbeing, control & volunteerism
The Relationship of Volunteerism and Perceived Control to
Personal and Neighbourhood Wellbeing
By
Michael Staples
BSocSc (Psych)
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
(Post) Graduate Diploma of Psychology
Deakin University
School of Psychology
October 2004
“I, the undersigned, declare that this Empirical Report is less than the specified word limit, and that it comprises original work and writing by me, and that due acknowledgement has been made to all other material used.
Signed______Dated______”
Student number: 400048325
Supervisor: Dr Sue Chambers
Home campus: Burwood
Word count:5253
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would firstly like to acknowledge the support and encouragement of all my family and friends. In particular, thank you to my partner, Luise, as the past six years would not have been possible without her love, support and the personal sacrifices she has endured while my attention has been divided; and our two boys, Aiden and Joshua, who have not experienced as much time together with me as they would have liked while I have spent time away studying. Thank you to my parents, Dick and Lorraine for their unfailing love and belief in me. Thank you also to Peter and Ruth, for their constant support and understanding throughout my tertiary education was beyond the call and will not be forgotten. Thank you also to Lucy for your patience, guidance and friendship throughout the year and for proof reading the multitude of my assignment drafts. I would also like to thank many of my lecturers, tutors and classmates who have been a huge support and source of knowledge over the years. You know who you are.
Finally, thank you to my supervisor, Dr Sue Chambers, for without her tolerance, guidance and support this project could not have been undertaken or completed.
Contents
Figuresv
Tablesvi
Abstract1
Introduction2
Subjective wellbeing (SWB)2
Personal wellbeing (PWB)2
Neighbourhood wellbeing (NWB)3
Perceived Control3
Primary control4
Secondary control4
Relinquished control4
Volunteers5
Aim6
Hypotheses6
Method7
Participants7
Measures7
Personal and Neighbourhood Wellbeing Indexes7
Perceived control scales8
Volunteerism8
Procedure8
Results8
Preliminary Data Analysis8
Reliability10
PWB and NWB10
Perceived control11
Volunteerism13
Hypotheses13
Hypothesis 113
Hypothesis 214
Hypothesis 3a14
Hypothesis 3b16
Discussion17
Conclusion20
References21
Appendix A – Australian Unity Wellbeing Index Survey25
Appendix B – Plain language statement29
Appendix C – Letter to participants30
Figures
Figure 1.Model of Volunteerism as the predictor of Subjective Wellbeing
through Perceived control strategies6
Tables
Table 1.Mean Differences in PWB and NWB items and Reliabilities
by Volunteer Group10
Table 2.Mean Differences in Perceived Control and Reliabilities
by Volunteer Group12
Table 3.Means Differences in PWB and NWB Scale scores by
Volunteer Group.13
Table 4.Means and Standard deviations for Control Type by
Volunteer group14
Table 5.Hierarchical Regression for Perceived Control Type and
Volunteer group on Personal Wellbeing15
Table 6.Hierarchical Regression for Perceived Control type and
Volunteer Group on Neighbourhood Wellbeing16
1
Wellbeing, control & volunteerism
Abstract
Research on contributing factors to Subjective wellbeing (SWB) has been developing over the past decade and has already proven influential in the advancement of many areas in people’s lives including public policy and mental health treatment outcomes. This study explored the relationship of volunteerism and perceived control to subjective wellbeing. 556 Australian adults completed a 97-item questionnaire that included Likert item scales to measure of subjective wellbeing (Personal and Neighbourhood Life Satisfaction, Personal wellbeing (PWB) and Neighbourhood wellbeing (NWB)); perceived control (primary, secondary and relinquished), and a question on participation in voluntary work to form volunteer and non-volunteer groups. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) volunteers would have higher levels of SWB than non-volunteers; (2) volunteers will report more use of positive control strategies (primary and secondary control) and less use of relinquished control, than non-volunteers; (3) volunteers’ greater use of positive control strategies than non-volunteers, would contribute to their higher levels of subjective wellbeing. One-way ANOVAs were computed to test for Volunteer Group differences to test the first two hypotheses, and Hierarchical regressions were computed to test the third hypothesis. The results provided support for the first and third hypotheses. The second hypothesis was not wholly supported. It was concluded that volunteerism has a positive effect on people’s subjective wellbeing, and is related to the control strategies people use when facing difficult situations. Implications of the study and recommendations for future research are considered.
How people feel about their lives has become a popular topic in the field of psychological research. The study of quality of life (QOL) through the domain of subjective wellbeing (SWB) examines the various factors that contribute to high levels of wellbeing. Research on SWB has been developing over the past decade and has already proven influential in the advancement of many areas in people’s lives such as public policy, mental health, and treatment outcomes (Cummins, 1996; Kimweli & Stilwell, 2002). This study explores the relationships between two factors involved within the SWB construct and how they relate to volunteerism.
Subjective Wellbeing (SWB)
SWB has been defined as a construct that reflects peoples’ perceptions of their lives in terms of emotional behaviour, and psychosocial functioning, which are all essential dimensions of mental health (Keyes & Waterman, 2003). SWB research indicates the domains of personality, motivation and a group of cognitive buffers (perceived control, self-esteem and optimism), all contribute to people’s life satisfaction (Cummins, Gullone & Lau, 2002). The majority of SWB research focuses on self-evaluations of life satisfaction directed at the personal level, although national and neighbourhood levels have also been studied (Ahrens, 2002; Cummins, et al., 2002; Diener & Suh, 1997; Hollway, 2003; Salt, 2002).
Personal Wellbeing (PWB)
PWB is an integral factor of SWB. Studies have found seven domains important to SWB; standard of living, health, achievement in life, safety, relationships, community connectedness, and future security (Cummins, et al., 2003a). These domains are valuable in the understanding of the psychological and physical makeup of individuals and identifies components that contribute to SWB generally. According to Cummins, et al., (2003b) PWB for adults in Western nations scores in the range of 70 – 80% SM and is held at this high level homeostatically for each individual, as with blood pressure or body temperature.
Research suggests that some of the domains contributing to PWB may relate to the activity they engage in. For example, research by Gidron (1984) on volunteer retention found that recognition received, achievement of positive outcomes, and contact with other volunteers were significant factors in differentiating between people who withdrew from volunteering, and those who continued. The research tells us that PWB is a fundamental component of SWB, however, research also suggests that people’s neighbourhoods are an influential factor to levels of life satisfaction (Chambers, Hollway, Parsons & Wallage, 2003).
Neighbourhood Wellbeing (NWB)
The NWB scale (Holloway, 2003) is a recently developed measure of a range of domains impacting on neighbourhood wellbeing consisting of trust, participation, common goals, security, natural environment, availability of resources, and reciprocity, making this scale a more complete measure of neighbourhood wellbeing than single item NWB measures commonly used (Christakopoulou, Dawson & Gari, 2001).
The multi-dimensional aspect of NWB is important in understanding the psychological function of neighbourhoods and the influence of these factors on people’s overall subjective wellbeing. For example, people who consider themselves to be connected to, or involved in their neighbourhood report high levels of wellbeing (Cohen, Mason, Bedimo and Scribner, 2003).
In addition to the PWB and NWB domains, Cummins, et al. (2002) proposed that the cognitive buffers of perceived control, self-esteem and optimism are also important components in the maintenance of SWB, however Perceived control is particularly important to examinations of PWB and NWB, as extensive research has been conducted involving perceived control and PWB (Cummins, et al., 2002) and the inclusion of NWB has largely been ignored.
Research reports that NWB consistently scores less than PWB (Chambers, et al., 2003). Cummins (2003b),proposed that the disparity in mean scores between the two subscales is due to proximal-distal differences, suggesting that individuals perceive they retain more control over their personal life and less control in their external life as objectives become increasingly less self-related.
Perceived Control
The cognitive buffer of Perceived control allows individuals to dynamically control situations and experiences to meet their personal aspirations in what Snyder and Cantor (1998) refers to as operating on “agendas for action”. The influence of different control strategies has been shown to perform a critical function in the maintenance of SWB (Bailis, Segall, Mahon, Chipperfield, & Dunn, 2001; Keyes & Waterman, 2003; Van Willigen, 2000). Perceived control has been defined by Skinnner (1996) as models regarding the likely cause of desired and undesired events, and the individual’s judgement of success or failure as an outcome. Three types of perceived control have been identified in the literature; Primary control, Secondary control and Relinquished control (Deiner, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Lang & Heckhausen, 2001; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982).
Primary control. When primary control is employed, an individual aims to increase their rewards by influencing existing realities, attempting to achieve direct control over situations through their personal actions (Petito & Cummins, 2000; Rothbaum, et al., 1982; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996).
Secondary control. Secondary control is where an individual aims to increase their rewards by passively influencing existing realities and increase satisfaction to fit in with their perceived environment (Skinner, 1996). Modifying expectations to fit outcomes, aligning oneself with luck or fate, or depending on powerful others are examples of secondary control (Klein & Helweg-Larsen, 2002; Thompson & Spacapan, 1991). In contrast with primary control, secondary control is aimed at the self rather than the environment.
Relinquished control. Control can also be relinquished by the individual in perceiving an event as uncontrollable and resigning the motivation for control through inaction (Rothbaum, et al., 1982; Skinner, 1996). For example, an individual may react to a negative event or situation by not responding to it at all, or by giving up attempts to do anything about a negative situation (Thurber & Weisz, 1997). Relinquished control is generally accepted as an additional factor to the two-process model of primary and secondary control (Rothbaum, et al., 1982; Skinner, 1996).
Research by Iwasaki and Mannell (2000)found that the choices people make in their leisure activity has the potential for individuals to develop feelings of empowerment, to cope better generally, to enhance moods, and to help manage stress. Conceivably, no situation better illustrates the efficacy of this approach to community participation than a study of volunteerism in the neighbourhood. This view is supported by Thoits and Hewitt (2001), who reported that people in good physical and mental health are likely to possess cognitive resources (such as a sense of control over life) that promote participation in volunteerism. These behaviours are normally freely chosen, which Stukas and Dunlap (2002) believe may reflect individual’s personal objectives and cognitive resources, rather than impulsive actions.
Volunteers
Research has identified sources of satisfaction related to volunteer activity. Defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2001a) as “Someone who, in the last 12 months, willingly gave unpaid help in the form of time, service or skills, through an organisation or group”, voluntary work provides benefits for both the volunteer and the community. According to research conducted by the ABS (2001b), Australians are increasing participation in their communities through volunteer activity. Being a benefit to the community was found to be the primary reason for volunteering by 47% of volunteers, and 43% reporting personal satisfaction as the main reason they volunteered (ABS, 2001b).
Surprisingly there is a dearth of literature regarding the direct impact of volunteering on physical and psychological wellbeing. However, recent research has shown that volunteerism can be beneficial to psychological wellbeing and the wellbeing of individuals and communities. Research has reported increased longevity (Deiner & Seligman, 2004), personal satisfaction (ABS, 2001b), personal resources and wellbeing (Thoits & Hewitt, 2001), sense of achievement (Curtis & Van Nouhuys, 1999), and resistance to stressors (Iwasaki, Zuzanek, & Mannell, 2001) are some of the personal benefits of volunteering. Community benefits include better health and community life (McDowell & Ekegren, 2002), reduced public expenditure (Stukas & Dunlap, 2002), and increased neighbourhood trust (Forte, 1997).
Research by Van Willigen (2000) also reveals that both PWB and NWB can be improved through volunteering as the extent to which individuals consider they are a part of a supportive community, have a sense of perceived control over the outcomes of their lives, increased work satisfaction, and foresee attainable rewards, influences their psychological wellbeing.
Aim
The aim of the present research is to examine how perceived control functions in relation to SWB through the personal and neighbourhood wellbeing domains in volunteers and non-volunteers. A theoretical model of relationships among these variables can be seen in Figure 1. It is suggested that perceived control influences volunteer activity and this in turn influences the personal and neighbourhood levels of SWB. The current study will explore the relationship of these key variables through three hypotheses.
Figure 1. Model of the Relationship between Volunteerism, Perceived control strategies, and Subjective Wellbeing.
Hypotheses
The present study tested three hypotheses based on the above model on the relationship of volunteerism and perceived control to personal and neighbourhood wellbeing. The first hypothesis predicts that volunteers will have higher SWB than non-volunteers as measured by NWB, PWB, general personal life satisfaction and neighbourhood satisfaction. Secondly, it is hypothesised that volunteers will use different control strategies to non-volunteers; namely more use of positive control strategies (primary and secondary control), and less use of relinquished control. The third hypothesis predicted that volunteers’ greater use of positive control strategies than non-volunteers, would contribute to their higher levels of PWB and NWB.
Method
Participants
The sample was taken from the Australian Unity Wellbeing longitudinal study and consisted of 556 adults from across Australia, aged from 18 to 90 years (M = 53.01, SD = 15.64), with 218 males (39.21 %), 331 females (59.53 %), and seven participants who did not respond to the gender question (1.26%). The responses of these participants were included in the analyses as gender was not essential to our hypotheses. The participants represented a broad range of socio-economic, ethnic and geographical backgrounds. A total of 1620 questionnaires were sent to individuals who had previously indicated that they would be willing to participate in further research surveys. A response rate of 34.32% was achieved. The study was conducted as a component of a 4th year psychology university course.
Measures
The questionnaire items relevant to this study were the measures of PWB (items 2-9), NWB (items 35-41), Perceived Control (items 60-68) and Volunteerism (item 53).
Personal and Neighbourhood Wellbeing Indexes. Personal wellbeing was measured by the Personal Wellbeing scale developed by Cummins, et al. (2003b). The seven item scale measures level of personal satisfaction participants’ have across seven broad domains; standard of living, health, personal relationships, achievements, safety, community connection, and future security (see Table 1). The PWB scale has previously reported good internal reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of .82 (Cummins, et al., 2001). Items were preceded with the lead statement, “How satisfied are you with...”.
The measurement of Neighbourhood Wellbeing (NWB) was based on a scale developed by Ahrens (2002), Salt (2002) and Holloway (2003). The 6-item scale measures trust, participation, common goals, natural environment, availability of resources, and reciprocity. The NWB scale has been shown to have good internal reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of .89 (Holloway, 2003).
Overall life satisfaction was assessed with a single item (item 1), “how satisfied were you with life as a whole”, and overall NWB satisfaction was also assessed with a single item (item 35), “how satisfied were you with life in your neighbourhood as a whole”. These items were excluded from the PWB and NWB scales since they are considered too general in nature, rather than specific domains like the remaining items.
Both the PWB scale, NWB items and the two life satisfaction items require participants to respond using an 11-point Likert scale ranging from “Very dissatisfied” (0), to “Very satisfied” (10). All 6 of the NWB items (see Table 1) were preceded with the lead statement, “How satisfied are you with…”
Perceived Control Scales. Primary, secondary and relinquished control was measured using items developed by Cousins (2001) and Hollway (2003), with three items for each type of control (See Table 2). Chambers, Hollway, Parsons and Wallage (2003) reported satisfactory reliabilities for the Primary (.88), Secondary (.90) and Relinquished (.70) Perceived Control subscales.
The perceived control items required participants to respond using an 11-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly disagree” (0), to “Strongly agree” (10). All of the perceived control items were preceded with the lead statement, “When something bad happens to me...”
Volunteerism. Volunteer activity was measured by the participant answering yes or no to the question, “Do you work as a volunteer outside your home”.
Procedure
Ethics approval for this study was obtained from the Deakin University Ethics Committee. Questionnaires were sent to participants in an envelope containing the 97-item questionnaire (Appendix A), a plain language statement (Appendix B), a letter to participants (Appendix C) and a reply paid envelope. The plain language statement informed participants that return of a completed questionnaire signified consent and participants were assured of the confidentiality of their responses.