14
CHAPTER
PhysicalandCognitive
DevelopmentinAdolescence
I. ChapterOverview
1. AdolescentsandSociety
HistoricalViews
AdolescentsinModernSociety
2. BiologicalTheoriesofAdolescentDevelopment
G.StanleyHall
Sigmund Freud
ModernTheoriesofBiologicalDevelopment
3. Puberty
TheGrowthSpurt SexualDevelopment BrainDevelopment
TheNeuro-HormonalSystem TheTimingofPuberty PubertyandHealth
4. CognitiveDevelopment
Piaget’sTheoryofFormalOperations Information-ProcessingApproaches SocioculturalApproaches
5. MoralDevelopment
Kohlberg’sTheoryofMoralReasoning
Gilligan’sTheoryofMoralReasoning
ParentandPeerContributionstoMoralDevelopment
CulturalVariationsinMoralReasoning
TheRelationBetweenMoralReasoningandMoralAction
6. Implications
II. KeyConceptstoEmphasize
III.ConnectionstoText:CentralIssuesandTheories
Continuityvs.discontinuity
329
Naturevs.nurture
Plasticity
Individualdifferences
Theories
IV. GuidetotheSupplements
V. ActivitiestoEnhanceLearning(homework, in-classactivities, discussionquestions)
VI.Handouts
I.ChapterOverview
Adolescenceischaracterizedbyremarkablechangesinphysicalandintellectualdevelopment,present- ingchallengeswhosespecificsdependontheparticularsociety.
1. ADOLESCENTSANDSOCIETY
•Virtuallyallsocietiesrecognizeadolescenceasanimportanttransitionrequiringspecial attention.Inphilosophyandliteraturethroughtheages,adolescencehasbeenseen asa periodofuniqueperilandpromise.
•Industrializationledtoincreasedattentiontoadolescencebecauseitledtourbanyouth problemsandtoaneedforamoreeducatedworkforce.
•Prolongededucationanddelayedmarriageandchildbearingarecommoninmany contemporarysocieties.Consequencesforyoungpeopleincludeincreasingrelianceon parentsforsupport,anextendedperiodofidentityexploration,andfeelingsofbeing unpreparedfortherolesandresponsibilitiesofadulthood.
Apply,Connect, Discuss
Providesomepersonalexamplesofhowsocial andculturaltensionstobebothchildlikeand adultlikeaffectedyouradolescence.Towhatextentmighttheseexamplesbeassociatedwithcon- temporarysocialandculturalissuesfacingadolescentsandtheirfamilies?
2. BIOLOGICAL THEORIESOFADOLESCENTDEVELOPMENT
•G.StanleyHallsawadolescenceasatimeof“stormandstress”andasevolutionarily correspondingtoaperiodbeyondthebiologicallypredeterminedpast,withadolescents thusrepresentingthefutureofthespecies.
•Sigmund Freudsawadolescenceasthebeginningofthegenitalstageofpsychosexual developmentanditsmaintaskasreestablishingthebalanceamongtheid,ego,and superegothatwasupsetbytheupsurgeofsexualexcitationatpuberty.
•Modernbiologicalapproachesfocusonevolutionaryimplicationsofsuchaspectsasdelayed maturationfollowedbythegrowthspurtatpuberty,apatternuniquetohumansand evolutionarilyadvantageous.
Figures:
14.1Comparisonbetweenhumanandchimpanzeephysicalmaturity
Apply,Connect, Discuss
Fromabioculturalperspective,whymightitbeadvantageoustodevelop advancedsocial,eco- nomic,andcognitiveskillsandabilitiespriorto,ratherthanafter, reachingsexualmaturity?
3. PUBERTY
•Pubertyreferstothebiologicaldevelopmentsthatleadtophysicalmaturityandcapacityfor reproduction.
•Thegrowthspurtisoneofthefirstsignsofpuberty.
•Ingirls,thedevelopmentofprimarysexcharacteristics,orreproductiveorgans,includes
thematurationoftheovaries,whichleadstoovulation,typicallybeginningaftermenarche, thefirstmenstrualperiod.Inboys,itincludesthematurationofthetestes,whichleadsto spermproductionandtosemenarche,thefirstejaculation.Developmentofsecondarysex characteristics,beginningwithbreastbudsingirlsandpubichairinbothsexes,provides evidencethatpubertyisunderway.
•Significantbraindevelopmentsinadolescenceincludechangestothecortexandlimbic system.Thecortex,especiallytheprefrontalcortex,whichisassociatedwithhigherforms ofreasoninganddecisionmaking,undergoesaperiodofrapidsynapticgrowthand pruning.Thelimbicsystem,associatedwiththeexperienceandinterpretationofemotions, undergoesaperiodofmyelinationandsynapticpruning.
•Thetimingofpuberty,earlierforgirlsthanforboys,varieswidelyasaresultofcomplex interactionsbetweengeneticandenvironmentalfactors.Caloricintakemaybeamongthe crucialenvironmentalfactors,asacertainlevelofbodyfatmayberequiredfortheonsetof puberty;thus,nutritionalimprovementsmayhave ledtotheseculartrendofdeclineover thedecadesintheaverageageofpuberty.However,“overnutrition,”thatis, diets
excessivelyhighincalories,hasbeenidentified asasourceofrecenttrendstowardearlier pubertalonsetinmanyindustrializedanddevelopingcountries.
•Althoughadolescenceisgenerallyatimeofgoodhealth,itsastronomical growthratesplace newdemandsonthebody,creatingspecialneedsfornutrition,sleep,andphysical activity—needsthatalltoooftenarenotfullymet.
•Pubertyhasprofoundsocialandpsychologicalconsequences,whichareinfluencedbycultural beliefsandvalues.Forculturalreasons,pubertymaytendtobemorepsychologicallydifficult forgirlsthanforboysespecially ifitstimingisearlyratherthanontimeorlate.
Tables
14.1Tanner’sstagesofpubertaldevelopment
14.2Chronologicalageatonsetofpubertyforgirlsandboys
14.3Risksassociatedwithearlypuberty
14.4Earlierpuberty:Theoriesandspeculation
14.5Nutrientsofconcernintheaveragedietofadolescents
Figures
14.2Physicalchangesthataccompanypuberty
14.3Changesacrossregionsinthebrain
14.4Brainscansacrossages
14.5TheHPGaxis
14.6Theimpactoftheprotein,kisspeptin,inactivatingtheHPGaxis
14.7Ageofmenarcheacrosscountries
Apply,Connect, Discuss
Researchonadolescentbraindevelopmenthasraisedquestionsaboutwhetherteensarecapa- bleofmakingmaturedecisionsandunderstandingtheconsequencesoftheiractions.Ingeneral,do youthinkadolescentsshouldbeheldlessaccountablethanadultsforbaddecisions?Doyouthink theyshouldbeheldlessaccountablethanadultsforseriouscrimes?
Whatmightbedonetoprotectgirlsfromthenegativeconsequencesofearlymaturation?Con- sidervariouscontextsofprevention,includingfamilies,schools,andculture.
4. COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT
•AccordingtoPiaget,adolescenceismarkedbytheemergenceofacapacityforformal operationalthinking,for relatingsetsofrelationshipstoeachother.Formaloperational thinkerscanreasonbysystematicallymanipulatingvariablesandcanusehypothetical- deductivereasoning,judginganargumentbasedonlogicalformalone.
•Sociocognitiveconflict—cognitiveconflictrootedinsocialexperience—maybeparticularly usefulforpromotingformaloperationalthinking.Ratherthanbeingauniversalstage, formaloperationalthinkingappearstodependoncertainexperiencesandtonotbe consistentlyusedbythosewhodouseit.
•Information-processingapproachesattributeadolescents’moresystematicthinkingto increasedworkingmemorycapacityandtotheuseofmorepowerful problem-solving strategies.
•Epistemicdevelopment,involvinghowindividuals reasonaboutthenatureoftruthand knowledge,takesdifferentformsduringadolescence:Theobjectivisttheoryofknowledge; thesubjectivisttheoryofknowledge;andtheevaluativisttheoryofknowledge.
•Socioculturalapproachesdemonstratetheroleofsocialinteractionsinscaffoldingits developmentofadolescentthinking.
Tables:
14.6Piaget’sstagesofdevelopment
Figures:
14.8Combinationofchemicalstask
14.9Gameofdominoes
Boxes:
Peacekeepinginavirtualclassroom
Apply,Connect, Discuss
Presentevidenceforandagainsttheargumentthatitisappropriateforadolescentstobetried incourtas adults.Whatis yourownopiniononthismatter?Why?Defendyourpositionusingre- searchpresentedinthissection.
6. MORALDEVELOPMENT
•AccordingtoLawrenceKohlberg,moralreasoningatstage4(“law-and-ordermorality”) appearsduringadolescence,althoughreasoningatstage3(“good-childmorality”)remains moretypical.Kohlbergbelievedthatpostconventionalreasoning(basedonprinciples)is relativelyrare.
•CarolGilligan,takingafeministapproach,arguedthatKohlberghademphasizedamorality ofjusticeattheexpenseofamoralityofcare.
•AlthoughKohlberg’sapproachshowedsignificantdifferencesbetweenculturesinmembers’ moralreasoning,cross-culturalstudiestakingotherapproachessuggestthatdifferences betweenculturesarefewandthattheshifttopostconventionalreasoningiswidespread. Socialdomaintheory,onesuchapproach,showstheimportanceofseparatingissuesof moralityfromissuesofsocialconventionandpersonalchoice.
•Parentsandpeersmakeimportantbutdistinctcontributionstoadolescents’moral development.
•Adolescents’actionsdonotalwaysaccordwiththeirmorals,perhapsreflectinginconsistent societalstandards,aswellasadolescents’differentdefinitionsofissuesasbelongingto moralversuspersonalchoiceandsocialconventiondomains.Perspectivetakingand prosocialreasoningencouragemoralbehavior.
Tables:
14.7Kohlberg’ssixmoralstages
14.8Itemspittingonekindofconsiderationagainsttheother
Figures:
14.10Meanpercentage ofU.S.citizensateachofKohlberg’sstages
14.11Agetrendsinmoralreasoningofboys insmall,isolatedvillages
Apply,Connect, Discuss
Supposeyouwanttofacilitatemoraldevelopmentinjuveniledelinquentsparticipatingina counselingprogram. Howwould yougoaboutthisfromaKohlbergianperspective?Howwould you dothisfromtheperspectiveofsocialdomaintheory?Ineachcase,considerwhetheryourinterven- tionprogramswouldworkwiththeteensone-on-one,orinfamilyorpeergroups.
II. KeyConceptstoEmphasize
1. ADOLESCENTSANDSOCIETY
Amainpointintheadolescentsandsocietysectionisthatthe“stormandstress”oftenassociated withadolescenceis notanewphenomenon.FromAristotletoShakespeare,historyprovidesmany
examplesofastageofdevelopmentsimilartowhatwenowcalladolescence.Youmightassignstu- dentstowatchoneofthevariousmoviesmadefromShakespeare’splay“RomeoandJuliet”toiden- tifyfeaturesofadolescenceidentifiedinthetext.Theycanthencome toclasswitha reviewoftheir movieandawrittensummaryofhowitrelatestowhatwasidentified inthetext.
2. BIOLOGICAL THEORIESOFADOLESCENTDEVELOPMENT
ThesectiononbiologicalapproachestoadolescencebeginswithareviewofHall’sviewofadoles- cenceasa timeof“stormandstress.”Thedescriptionfeatureshisviewofadolescenceastheconse- quenceofevolutionaryprocesses.Studentscanbeaskedtodiscussinsmallgroupstheiropinions aboutwhetheradolescenceisatime of“stormandstress”andhowwelltheevolutionarymodelap- plies.ThissectionalsoreturnstoFreud.Ifyourclassdiscussionsconcerningearlierstagesofdevel- opmentfeaturedFreud’stheoreticalmodel,thenareturntothatmodelmayhelpstudentsbetter understandhisoverarchingtheory.
3. PUBERTY
Thesectiononpubertyprovidesopportunitiestohighlightthetransactionalnatureofdevelopment.
Thegrowthspurtthataccompaniesadolescencerepresentsaclearexampleofdiscontinuityin development.Itisalsoaclearlyobservableexampleofdiscontinuityandassuchcanserve asthe focusonacomparativestudy.Studentsmightgotoamiddleschoolandattempttochartthevaria- tionsinsizeandgrowthofthestudents.Thedifferencesinthegrowthspurtandbodychangesfor malesandfemalesprovideanopportunitytodiscussthetransactionalrelationshipbetweennature andnurtureaswellasindividualdifferences.
Thischapterprovidesagoodopportunitytoreturntosomeoftheconceptsregardingbrainde- velopmentthatwerecoveredpreviously.Duringadolescence,therearedynamicchangesacrossthe brain.Thecerebralcortexgoesthroughsignificantchangesasdoesthelimbicsystem.Thesynapto- genesisandsynapticpruningthatoccur aresimilartothataswasdescribed ininfancy.Thisisthere- foreaperiodwherethereistremendousopportunityforgrowthbutalsosignificantrisks.
Themanychangesthatoccurwithsexualdevelopmentaddtothediscontinuityindevelop- mentfoundinadolescence.Theconfusion caused fortheindividual experiencingthese changescan bediscussed asafurthercontributortothepotential“stormandstress”ofadolescence.
The braindevelopmentsectionshouldbehighlightedasthisrepresentsarelativelynewareaof research.Timemagazine(May 10th,2004)includesanexcellentsummaryofcurrentresearchonthe secretsoftheteenbrain.Itprovidesagraphicofthebrainshowingthenerveproliferationandprun- ingthatoccurduringadolescenceaswellasasummaryof thechangesthatoccurinall regionsof thebrain.Itemphasizes theroleofhormonesastheyimpactthedeveloping brainandalso“dumb decisions”thatleadtoriskybehavior.
Thesectionontheneuro-hormonalsystemisnewtothisadditionandrepresentsanuptodate summaryofhowthehormonalshiftsthatoccurwithpubertyarelinkedwithneuronalchanges.The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal(HPG)axisaredescribedasformingahighlycomplexsystemof hormonalcommunicationassociated withtheonsetofpuberty.Figure14.6canbeusedtoexem- plifythiscomplex systemasitdepictstheimpactofkisspeptin,arecentlydiscoveredsmallprotein thatplaysaroleinactivatingtheHPGaxis.
Theevidenceconcerningtimingofpubertyandthecontributionsofgenetics andtheenvi- ronmentcanbepresentedtoillustrate theeffectsonourbasicbiologicfunctions.The influence of nutritionandstressaswellasthetrendforadecreaseinage ofonsetpointagaintothetransac- tionalrelationshipbetween natureandnurture.Thesectiononpubertyandhealthprovidesagood
opportunitytoreturntotheimportanceofnutritionandifyouareteachingtraditionalcollegestu- dents,theinformationonnutritionmaybeparticularlyimportantastheirowndietarypractices maybereflectedinwhatispresentedhere.Tables14.3and14.4canbediscussedtoemphasize thecomplexoutcomesrelatedtoearlyonsetofpuberty.
4. COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT
YoumaywanttocompareandcontrastPiagetianmodelswith information-processingandsocio-cul- turalperspectivesfeaturedhere.Thevariabilityinthinkingobservedforformaloperationalthink- ingledPiagettomakeclaimssimilartoasocioculturalperspective.Earlierdisagreementsabout universalityarereplacedherebytheagreementthatformsofreasoningarecontext-specific.Pi- agetdidnotmakethisclaimwithearlierstagesofdevelopment.Tohelpstudentsunderstandthe differencesbetweenthemodels,youcanfeaturefirstPiaget’scombinationof liquidsproblem(Fig- ure14.8),andthedominosdiscussionpresentedin thesocioculturalsection.Youcangroupthestu- dentsintosmallgroups,assignthemoneoftheseviewpoints,andrequirethemtosummarizeeach ofthemajorclaimsoftheseperspectivesinachartform.
5. MORALDEVELOPMENT
ToemphasizeKohlberg’sstagesofmoraldevelopment,studentscanbeaskedtowriteexamples ofanswerstotheHeinzdilemmathatreflecteachofthesixstages.Whilesomeareprovidedinthe text,studentsshouldbeencouragedtodevelopotherexamples(seeHandout14.11).
Studentscanalsobeencouragedtocompareandcontrastotherviewsonmoraldevelopmentby developingachartthatsummarizesthemainpointsofKohlberg’stheory,feministapproachesto moralreasoning,parentandpeercontributionstomoraldevelopment,andculturalvariationsin moralreasoning.ThiscanbedoneinaJigsawformatbyassigningsmallgroupstoeachoftheseper- spectivesandthenhavingthemsharetheirconclusionstothegroupasawhole.
III.ConnectionstoText:CentralIssuesandTheories
Thischapterprovidesopportunitiestodrawconnectionstothekeythemesforthistextandtheframeworks presentedinChapter1. Theseconnectionscanbedrawninlectures,classdiscussions,oractivities.
CONTINUITYVS.DISCONTINUITY
RemindstudentstoreviewthesectiononcontinuityanddiscontinuityinChapter1beforepartici- patingindiscussionsorcompletingtheactivity.
Evolutionaryandethologicalapproachestothestudyofadolescencefocusoncomparisons betweenhumansandotherspecies.Socialsimilaritiesarenotedbetweenspeciesandareexamples ofcontinuity.Theevolutionofdistinctiveperiodswithinthehumanspecieshasidentifieddisconti- nuitiesbetweenhumansandotherspecies.Forexample,thegrowthspurthumansexperiencewith theonsetofpubertyisnotfoundinotherspecies.Bogin,whoidentifiedthisuniqueaspectofhuman development,saysthisdistinctstageconfersanadvantageonadolescentsastheyhavetheopportu- nitytopracticeadultskillsbeforetheybeginreproducing.
Themanyphysicalchangesthatoccurwithpubertyareexamplesofdevelopmentaldiscontinu- ity.Thebodybeginstofunctioninadistinctlydifferentfashion afterthehormonalchangesof pu- berty. Inadditiontothechangesdescribed inthetext, aqualitativeshiftinfunctioning ismarkedby achangeinsleepschedulesduetoachangeinbodyrhythmthatoccurswithadolescence. Thisshift
isreviewedinthesupplementalreadingby A.R.WolfsonandM.A.Carskadon.Thedistinctivena- tureofthischangeaswellasitsimplicationsforthedailyschedulesofteensisnicelysummarized inthisreading.
NATUREVS.NURTURE
Thischapterprovidesseveralopportunitiestodiscussthecomplexinterplaybetween“nature”and “nurture”astheyimpactdevelopment.Remindstudentstoreviewthesectiononnatureandnurture inChapter1priortodiscussion.
Thebodychangesthataccompanypubertyleadteenageboystobestrongerthangirls.Boys canalsoexerciselongerthangirlsandexertmoreforceperounceofmusclethangirlsofthesame size.Thoughmalesare,inasense,favoredinthisregard,femalesaredescribedasbeing,onaver- age,healthier,livinglonger,andbeingbetterabletohandlelong-termstressthanmales.Thetext doesnotattempttoaccountforthecausalfactorsbehindthesedifferencesbeyondthebasicchanges inphysicalmakeup,butthesechangescanberelatedtonatureandnurture.Tofurtherexpandon thisidea,studentscanbeaskedtohypothesizepossiblecausalfactors forthedifferencesbetween malesandfemales bythinkingbackoverthedifferencesnotedbetweenthesexes throughouttheen- tiretext.Fromdifferencesinplay,interactionstyle,patternsofidentification,andso on,differences betweenthesexeshavebeenhighlightedthroughoutthetext.Thismaterialmayassiststudentsin engagingincreativethinkingtotrytoidentifycausalrelationships.
Thesectiononearlypubertyprovidesanothergoodopportunitytoreturntothethemeof na- ture/nurture. Table14.4nicelydisplaysphysicalpsychologicalfactors(nature)andsocioeconomic factors(nurture)thatcontributetoearlierpuberty.
PLASTICITY
Teenphysicaldevelopmentcanbeconnectedbacktotheplasticitythemeasitrepresentsasensitive stageindevelopment.Thereareavarietyofdevelopmentaloutcomesthatareassociatedwithpuberty marking itasauniquemarkerindevelopment. Theresearchonbraindevelopment alsoisagood ex- ampleofplasticityasitshowshowtheadolescentmaybeparticularlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofdrugs andalcohol,muchasafetuswasdescribedasbeingvulnerabletotheeffects ofteratogens.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Thoughageneraltrendinwomen’sdecreasingbodyimagesatisfactionafterpubertywasnoted, individualandgroupdifferenceswerealsonotedinresponsetobodychanges.Multiplefactors thatmayaccountforthesetrends,suchasindividualdifferences,themedia,culturalcontexts, andschoolarediscussed.Activitiescanbeconductedtohelpunderstand thesedifferences.A supportgroupforteensexperiencingeatingdisordersmayfurtherelaborateonthefactorsthat leadsomeindividualstoexperiencethisdisorder.Anexaminationofthemedia,includingpop- ularTVshowsandmagazines,canservetoconfirmtheportionofthetextdescribing“ideal”fe- maleattributes.Studentscanbeaskedtoreview themediaandlookforexamplesofidealand alternaterolemodels.Studentscanbeaskedtohypothesizewhysomewomenappeartobe swayed bytheseidealswhileothersdonot.Theinfluenceofculturaldifferencescanbefurther elaborateduponbytalkingwithmembersofdifferent culturesaboutwhatbodysizesareattrac- tivetothem.Theintervieweescanalsobeaskedtoidentifywhattheythinkaccountsforthese differentculturalvalues.Afinal activitythatcanbeconductedistovisitschoolsandseeifdif- ferentlevelsofacceptancearefound.Studentscanalso beaskedtodevelophypothesesonwhat accountsforthesedifferentlevelsofacceptance.
Therearesomewhatsubstantialindividualdifferencesintheonsetofpubertyaswellasdiffer- encesintheeffectsoflateandearlymaturation.Toemphasizethis,studentscanbeaskedtosum- marizethematerialonthesetopics.Theycanalsoattempttoidentifyfactorsthataccountforthese individualdifferencesandtrends(seeHandout14.10).
THEORIES
Tosummarizetheirunderstandingofadolescentdevelopment,studentscanbeaskedtoreturnto the grandtheoriesandstatewhateachwouldfocusoninordertoexplainthe developmentalchanges thatoccurinthephysicalandcognitiveareasofdevelopment.Handout14.12wouldhelporganize thisactivity.
IV.GuidetotheSupplements
WorthPublishershasavarietyofsupplementaltoolstoassistinstructorsintheircourses.Therearesup- plementalreadingsgroupedaccordingtoeachsectionofthecourse.Multiplevideoclipscanbefound tosupportastudent’sunderstandingofthematerialinthischapter.TheToolKitincludesanexcellent samplingofvideoclipswithassociatedactivitiesthatcanbecompletedoutsideclassandturnedinfor instructorreview.RefertotheintroductorychapterforthisInstructor’sResourcemanualforideason howtousethesesupplementsacrossthetext.
Thesupplementalvideosincludeinformationonpubertyincludingtheimpactofthetiming ofpu- bertyandgenderdifferences.Thereisalsoacomparisonofconcrete-operationalthinkingandformal- operationalthinking.AcliponinitiationsamongtheChokweandrelatedpeoplesisalsoincluded.
EpisodeThreeof“TheSecretLifeoftheBrain:TheTeenageWorld:AWorldofTheirOwn”supports the materialonchangesinthe brainthatoccurduringadolescence.Itshowsthe vulnerabilityofthe brain duringthisperiodofgrowthasdescribedinthetextbydepictingtheinfluenceofaddictivedrugsand theonsetofschizophreniawhichstrikesmostoftenduringadolescence.
V.ActivitiestoEnhanceLearning(homework, in-class activities, discussionquestions)
Theprefaceintroducedavarietyofactivitiesthataninstructorcanusetoenhancelearning.These in- cludehomeworkwhichastudentcancompleteoutsideclassandthenturninforgradingorreview.The resultsofthesehomeworkactivitiescanalsobereviewedduringa classsession.Theactivitiesfoundon theToolKitlendthemselvestoreviewanddiscussioninclass.Also,theApply,Connect,Discusssections ofthischapterlendthemselveswelltoin-classactivities.Afewexamplesofactivitieswillbepresented herespecificforthischapter,butwealsogiveyouaremindertoreviewtheactivitiesdescribedinthe prefaceforotheractivitiesthatyoucanusetoenhancethelearningofthematerialinthischapter.
HOMEWORK
•Selectoneofthestudiesdescribedinthetextandreviewtheoriginalstudy.Summarize thehypothesis,methods,results,andconclusionsforthisstudy.Doyouagreewiththe summaryofthestudyaspresentedinthetext?Whatisthebasisforyourposition?
•ThebookRevivingOpheliabyMaryPipher(1994)includesmanycaseexamplesof difficultiesexperiencedbyteenagegirls.Thismaterialcanbeusedtodelvemoredeeply intotheissuesofteenagegirls,eatingdisorders,andpoorbodyimage.
•Obtainheightsandweightsfromaclassof2nd,5th,8th,and11thgraders.Chartthe meansandrangesofheightsandweightsforthestudentsineachclass.Whatpatternsare notedwithinandbetweenthegroupsofstudents?
•Contactalocalsupportgroupforindividualswitheatingdisorders.Askthemwhatfactors theyhave foundtocontributetoeatingdisordersandalsowhattreatmentstheyhave found tobeeffective.Howdoeswhattheyreportfitwithwhatwaspresentedinthechapter?
•Observeateenengagedinacomplex problem-solvingtaskorgameathome.Thenhave themdescribehowthecharacteristicsnotedintheirobservationfitwiththematerialinthe text(seeHandout14.3).
•Thinkofacomplex dailytaskyouencounter,forexample, arranging yourchildren’s scheduleoryourhomework,school,andworkschedules.Whatpropertiesofformal- operationalthinkingareevidentinyourproblemsolvingrelatedtothistask?
•Interviewanadolescentandaskhim/hertodescribewaysinwhichhis/herthinking exemplifiesthecharacteristicsthatdistinguishadolescentthinkingfromthinkingtypicalof middlechildhood.Also,askhowhis/herthinkingvariesonthesedimensionsaccordingto thecontentandcontextofthesituation(Handout14.4).
IN-CLASSACTIVITIES
•Havestudentsdiscussinsmallgroupswhethertheyidentifythemselvesasalatematureror earlymaturer.Askthemtodiscusshowwelldotheirpersonalexperiencesfitwiththose describedinthetext.Alsoaskthemtodiscusswhatdotheythinkaccountsforany differencestheyfindintheirpersonalexperience.
•Thetextstatesthat“manyindividualswhoarecapableofformal-operationalthoughtdonotemployformal-operationalstrategiesinallsituations.”Havethestudentsgeneratealistofthesituationsinwhichtheyemployformal-operationalthoughtandthoseinwhichthey donot.Also,askthemtodescribewhatexplainsthesevariationsintheuseofoperational thought.Then,have themengageinapair-shareactivitytocompareandcontrastwhatthey have written.Havestudentssharetothegroupasawholeanddiscusswhatwassharedto reachconsensusoncommonthemes.
•Setupthecombinationofliquidstaskinyourclassroom.Eitherhave pairscompletethis togetheroraskforaseriesofvolunteers.Haveclassmateskeeptrackofperformanceand thenseeifyourclassreflectsthepatterndescribedinthetextwhereonly 30–40%of studentsareabletosuccessfullycompletethistask.Askstudentstodiscusswhy theythink theirclassmateseitherdidordidnotsuccessfullycompletethetaskandhowthisfitswith whatthetextsaysabouttheneedtofocuson“specificformsofreasoningassociatedwith particulartypesoftasksandculturalpractices.”
•Bringinavarietyofpopularsnackitemsoraskthestudentstobringinsomeoftheir favoritesnackfoods.Havethestudentsreviewthelistofingredientsoneachitemandthen ranktheitemsfromleasttomostnutritiousintermsofthenutritionalconcernslistedin Table14.5.Youcanalsoaskstudentstoreviewthenutritionalingredientsforfastfood itemsandrankthoseaswell.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Thefollowingquestionsrequirethestudenttosummarize,analyze,andevaluatematerialfromthe text.
•Describetheconnectionsbetweenbiologicalandsocialchangesinadolescence.
•Whathormonalchangesoccurinmalesandfemalesattheonsetofpuberty?
•Whataresecondarysexcharacteristics?
•Whatfactorsinfluence thetimingofpuberty?
•Whatimpactdoesthetimingofpubertyhave onlater life?
•WhatformsofculturalandgenderbiasarethoughttobereflectedinKohlberg’sstagesof moraldevelopment?
•HowdidPiaget’sviewsoncognition inadolescencefitwithasocioculturalperspectiveon cognitivedevelopment?
•Whatisthenatureofformal-operationalthinkingineverydaytasks?
VI.Handouts
Thehandoutsandactivityformsforthischapterarelistedbelow.
14.1AdvanceOrganizer
14.2KeyTerms
14.3ObservationGuide
14.4InterviewGuide
14.5Apply,Connect,Discuss:BeingChildlike versusAdultlike
14.6Apply,Connect,Discuss:EarlyMaturation
14.7Apply,Connect,Discuss:TeenDecisionMaking
14.8Apply,Connect,Discuss:ProtectionforGirls
14.9Apply,Connect,Discuss: TryingAdolescentsasAdults
14.10Apply,Connect,Discuss:FacilitatingMoralDevelopment
14.11IndividualDifferencesintheOnsetofPuberty
14.12ExamplesofKohlberg’sStagesofMoralDevelopment
14.13AdolescentDevelopmentandGrandTheories
Handout14.1ChapterAdvanceOrganizer
ChapterOutlineKeypointsandquestions
1.AdolescentsandSociety
HistoricalViews
AdolescentsinModernSociety
2.BiologicalTheoriesofAdolescentDevelopment
G.StanleyHall
SigmundFreud
ModernTheoriesofBiologicalDevelopment
3.Puberty
TheGrowthSpurt SexualDevelopment BrainDevelopment
TheNeuro-Hormonal System TheTimingofPuberty PubertyandHealth
4.CognitiveDevelopment
Piaget’sTheoryofFormalOperations Information-Processing Approaches SocioculturalApproaches
5.MoralDevelopment
Kohlberg’sTheoryofMoralReasoning
Gilligan’sTheoryofMoralReasoning
ParentandPeerContributionstoMoralDevelopment
CulturalVariationsinMoralReasoning
TheRelationBetween MoralReasoningandMoralAction
6.Implications
KeytermsDefineinyourownwordshere
growthspurt puberty
primarysexcharacteristics secondarysexcharacteristics menarche
semenarche seculartrend earlymaturation latematuration
formaloperations
hypothetical-deductivereasoning sociocognitiveconflict
moralityofjustice moralityofcare emergingadulthood prefrontalcortex limbicsystem
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal(HPG)axis hypothalamus
endocrinesystem sexhormones leptin
kisspeptinprecociouspubertyepistemicdevelopment
objectivisttheoryofknowledge subjectivisttheoryofknowledge evaluativisttheoryofknowledge
Reviewthematerialonpp.530–539 describingthecharacteristicsthatdistinguishadolescentthinkingfromthe thinkingtypicalofmiddlechildhood.Thenobserveanadolescentengagedinaproblem-solvingtaskorgameat homeorschool.Lookforexamplesofthesecharacteristicsastheteencompletesthetask.
Examplesfromyourobservation
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Epistemicreasoning
Decisionmakingcompetence
Generatingandevaluatingpossibleresultsofmovesinagameortask
*Ifpossible,completetheinterviewactivitywiththisstudentaswell(seeHandout14.4).
Reviewthematerialonpp.530–539 describingthecharacteristicsthatdistinguishadolescentthinkingfromthe thinkingtypicalofmiddlechildhood.Theninterviewanadolescentandaskhim/hertodescribewaysinwhich his/herthinkingillustratesthesecharacteristicsandhowhe/shebelievesherthinkinghaschangedineacharea fromhis/herthinkinginmiddlechildhood.Also,askhowhis/herthinkingvariesonthesedimensionsaccording tothecontentandcontextofthesituation.
Examplesandvariations
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Epistemicreasoning(objectivist,subjectivist,orevaluativisttheoriesofknowledge)
Decisionmakingcompetence
Generatingandevaluatingpossibleresultsofmovesinagameortask
Providesomepersonalexamplesofhowsocialandculturaltensionstobebothchildlikeandadultlikeaffected youradolescence.Towhatextentmighttheseexamplesbeassociatedwithcontemporary socialandculturalis- suesfacingadolescentsandtheirfamilies.
Fromabioculturalperspective,whymightitbeadvantageoustodevelopadvancedsocial,economic,andcogni- tiveskillsandabilitiespriorto,ratherthanafter,reachingsexualmaturity?
Researchonadolescent braindevelopmenthasraisedquestionsaboutwhetherteensarecapableofmakingma- turedecisionsandunderstandingtheconsequencesoftheiractions.Ingeneral,doyouthinkadolescentsshould beheldlessaccountablethanadultsforbaddecisions?Doyouthinktheyshouldbeheldlessaccountablethan adultsforseriouscrimes?
Whatmightbedonetoprotectgirlsfromthenegativeconsequencesofearlymaturation?Considervariouscon- textsofprevention,includingfamilies,schools,andculture.
Presentevidenceforandagainsttheargumentthatitisappropriateforadolescentstobetriedincourtasadults. Whatisyourownopiniononthismatter?Why?Defendyourpositionusingresearchpresentedinthissection.
Supposeyouwanttofacilitatemoraldevelopmentinjuveniledelinquentsparticipatinginacounselingprogram. HowwouldyougoaboutthisfromaKohlbergianperspective?Howwouldyoudothisfromtheperspectiveofso- cialdomaintheory?Ineachcase,considerwhetheryourinterventionprogramswouldworkwiththeteensone- on-oneorinfamilyorpeergroups.
Reviewthematerialinthetextregardingtheonsetofpubertyaswellasthesectionontheconsequencesofearly andlate maturation.Summarizethefollowing:
Whatindividualdifferencesweredescribedregardingtheonsetofpuberty?
Whatindividualdifferenceswerenotedfortheconsequencesofearlyandlatematuration?
Whatfactorsaccountfortheseindividualdifferences?
Kohlbergidentifiedsixstagesofmoraldevelopment.Heassessedstagesofmoraldevelopmentbyaskingforre- sponsestoamoraldilemma.Hismostfamousdilemmaisthe“Heinzdilemma”aspresentedbelow.Readthe dilemmaandthenwriteresponsestoitthatwouldfitwithineach ofKohlberg’sstagesofmoraldevelopment.
InEurope,awomanwasneardeathfromcancer.Onedrugmightsaveher,aformofradiumthata druggistinthesametownhadrecentlydiscovered. Thedruggistwascharging$2,000,tentimeswhat thedrugcosthimtomake.The sickwoman’shusband,Heinz,wenttoeveryoneheknewtoborrow themoney,buthecouldgettogetheronlyabouthalfofwhatitcost.Hetoldthedruggistthathis wifewasdyingandaskedhimtosellitcheaperorlethimpaylater.Butthedruggistsaid“no.”The husband gotdesperateandbrokeintotheman’sstoretostealthedrugforhiswife.Shouldthehus- bandhavedonethat?Why?
Stageofmoraldevelopment Examples
Stage1:
Heteronomous morality
Stage2:
Instrumentalmorality
Stage3:
Good-childmorality
Stage4:
Law-and-ordermorality
Stage5:
Social-contractreasoning
Stage6:
Universalethicalprinciples
Whichaspectsofadolescentphysicalandcognitivedevelopmentmighteachtheoryfocuson?
Psychodynamic
Behaviorism
Piaget’sconstructivism
Vygotsky’ssocioculturalapproach
Whichperspectivedoyoufindmostcompelling?