Classifications of diarrheal disease
1939
Manson-Bahr, Philip:
The Dysenteric Disorders: The Diagnosis and Treatment of Dysentery, Sprue, Colitis and other diarrhoeas in General Practice
London 1939
1: classification of the causes of diarrhoea ( people were concerned about the causes):
- Primary diarrhoea
-dietetic
-constipation
-changes of climate
-food poisoning
- Alterations of intestinal secretions or absorption
-acute and chronic dyspepsia, pancreatogenous diarrhoea and cholecystitis
-idiopathic steatorhoea ( coeliac disease)
-Sprue and Hill diarrhoea
-Nervous diarrhoea
- Secondary diarrhoea: infectious
-typhoid
-bacillary Dysentery
-colear
-Gaerner and Aertrycke infections
-Amoebiasis, giardiasis, flagelate diarrhoea, coccidiosis, malarial dysentery, leishmanial dysentery
-Bilharziasis and other worm infections
- .... Special type of diarrhoea:
-ulcerative colitis
-muco-membranous colitis
-polyposis
-polypus
-sterecoral ulceration
-foreign body in rectum
Special divisions: IN CHILDREN
-simple diarrhoea from chills or diet errors
-acute gastro-enteritis, summer diarrhoea
-amoebic Dysentery
-Coeliac disease
19:
Hippocrates distinguished between dysentery and other forms of diarrhoea
Other authors mentioned it as „bloody flux“ with crude clinical descriptions
5th c AD epidemics were noted in Europe
epidemics of dysentery were noted in 534 538 in France, 760 northern Europe
17th c clearly distinguished bloody-stained dysentery stools
20
first half of 19th century dysentery was thought of being “but one expression of malaria“
resemblance to malaria: tendency to break out at long intervals in pandemic form
21
during wars it was classified along with typhoid and typhus amongst the foremost pestilence of war. (17-19th)
22
19th century India brought forth a lot of research and study o dysentery, and amoebiasis
27
early 20th century once pathogens were discovered classification was:
bacillary dysentery
amoebic „
clinical „
diarrhoea
colitis
Dysentery was seen different from colitis and diarrhoea though all of them had as symptoms diarrhoea.
28
classification of dysentery, was necessary for the professional as the diseases of a wide and distinct aetiology resemble each other in many ways. Thus the „experts“ showed that classification according to micro-organisms would be applied ( which cannot be seen by patients/public)
took medicine a step further ahead into distance from public and individual illness experience.
Bacillary or epidemic dysentery
Protozoalor endemic dysentery: e.g. amoebiasis, giardiasis, malaria dysentery
Metazoal or helminthic dysentery: ulceration by helminths
Def: dysentery Greek „ a bowel complaint“ explains main outstanding symptoms, passage of abnormal blood stained mucus with tenesmus and pain
Field Michael: Diarrheal Diseases, Amsterdam 1991
Part of gastroenterology
P ix: maturation of the field leads to fragmentation of the knowledge-base and its diffusion through an ever-expanding literature. This should be seen as „intellectual vitality of our speciality“ (of gastroenterology)
Xi:
Infectious and non-infectious diarrhoea
Classification of chapters is chosen to address specialisation of the field, like paediatricians, patients with D of obscure origin, etc.
Look at D more as a symptom and start with the intestinal ion transport and list regulation
Section 2: pathophysiology of diarrhoea:
Mechanism of diarrhoea is explained in relation to intestinal inflammation and immune system modulation
Bacterial Enterotoxins
Viral Gastroenteritis
Nutrient induced diarrhoea
Role of motility in diarrhoea diseases
Section 3:
Basic investigation of a patient with diarrhoea
Classifications:
Chronic D of obscure origins
Bacterial Enteridities
Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea
Protozoal diarrhoea
diarrhoea diseases in children
Congenital diarrhoea
Endocrine tumor-associated diarrhoea Symptoms
Diabetic D ( modern disease, only because of research of the past 30 years can it be classified separately, though first described in 1936)
Ileostomy D ( came up with specific surgery )
Section 4: therapies of diarrhoea
Gracey M.,Walker-Smith J.A (eds.)
Diarrheal Disease
Nestle Nutrition Services
New York 1997
Basic classification is: 1-4
Acute infectious and persistent ( over 14 days) and chronic diarrhoea
Acute D:
-rotavirus and other virus infections
-enteric bacterial infections
-antibiotic induced diarrhoea through e.g. Clostridium difficile ( toxin producing bacterium), recognised since late 1970s
-algae
-traveller’s D: salmonella , shigella, parasites, viruses ( overlap with other classifications!)
-food-borne D, ( mentioned especially as it is a major problem in industrialised as well as developing counties because of the food chains): overlap with the microbes: salmonella, staphylococcus aureus, camphylobacter, yersenia...
-protozoan diarrhoea : giardia
-parasites: cryptosporidium
-
PERSISTENT D:
-2 –23% of cases in children last longer than 2 weeks and 45% of diarrhoea death in Brazil are due to persistent diarrhoea or non-dysenteric persistent D
WHO def. (p.211):
Persistent diarrhoea „begins acutely and lasts for at least 14 days“, as in third week mortality rate of diarrhoea changes in children affected by diarrhoea Classification was made for case-management purposes and for comparability of research findings which is essential in such an range of health-threatening disease like diarrhoea
The def persistent D does not include specific disorders, like surgical conditions of diarrhoea celica disease or hereditary syndromes.
55.
classification according to severity:
acute, watery , dehydrating diarrhoea require rapid intervention with replacement of water and electrolytes
invasive infectious D with systemic illnesses such as shigellosis, amoebiasis require antibiotics
58
infective diarrhoea
classification according to cause in the intestines:
a)increased intestinal secretion due to enterotoxins
b)decreased intestinal absorption due to intestinal damage or inflammation
243
Infectious D:
due to
-enterotoxins
-bacteria
-viruses
213 classification in research on mortality:
acute D 35% of death rates in India, Bangladesh, Brazil and Senegal
dysentery (20%)
nondysenteric persistent D 45%
242
AIDS and diarrhoea
New classification in 1984 called „AIDS ENTEROPATHY“ or „culture-negative D“ no pathogens could be identified in this type of D
279
Growth retardation due to chronic diarrhoea
In most situations retarded growth is due to other factors, the D being one symptom:
classification according to pathophysiologic mechanisms of D:
-pancreas insufficiency
-intestinal malabsorption: celiac disease
-inflammatory bowel disease: crohn’s disease
1993
The Evaluation and Treatment of the Patient with Diarrhea
Miskowitz P.F. Rochwarger A. M.
Andover Medical Publishers: Boston, London, Oxford,
3
diarrhea Greek „flowing through“
Patients will refer with this term to frequency, consistency or volume of stool. Their descriptions may be vague. Physician has to classify the clinical history.
4
D may be rigorously defined as the presence of 250 ml of water in the stool per 24 hrs ( normal 100 – 150 gm per 24 hrs, out of which 60 – 80% is water)
Evaluation of D as a patient complaint has 17 classifications of acute and chronic D depending on the type of patient ( table 3.1. p.4)
Classification between systematically or non-systematically ill patient with the same symptom because „the clinical history is the most important determinant in differentiation of the clinical problem.“ (p.3)
5
classifications according to stool evaluation ( colour, gross or occult blood, bacterial culture, consistency etc.) (table 1.4. p.5)
6
e.g. classification of bloody D can still have several causes: anal fissures, haemorrhoids, which are not relevant to the main problem D
10
classification of chronic D:
- D due to abnormal bowel motility: irritable bowel syndrome is most frequent cause of chronic :
- Malabsorptive D: decreased absorption of fluid, celiac sprue, lactose malabsorption
- Secretory D: cholera or hormonal D, several litres daily
- Inflammatory D
They can be single or overlaps each other, like in Morbus Crohn all 4 will be present, celiac sprue will have 2 and 3
Main classif of infectious causes of D appeared with the increase in microbiological tests and knowledge.
Bacterial D lists 36 types of bacteria, parasites (9 protozoa, 7 nematodes, 4 cestodes, 4 trematodes) 9 types of viruses. ( p. x and xi)
AIDS and D is listed separately, so is Traveller’s D because of their specific target group
Malabsorption is listed as a major cause for several types of diarrhoea and discussed separately.
New forms of D have been discovered that do not fit into the traditional classifications, separate section „other causes of D „ is added (p. xii-xiii)
e.g.:
- diarrhoea due to hormones, regulatory peptides and circulating humoral messengers (e.g. types of cancer, pancreatic cholera, hyperthyroidism)
- Idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease as a cause of diarrhoea
- Microscopic and Collagenous Colitis („non-specific colonic inflammation in patients with chronic idiopathic D“, term coined in 1980 by Read et al. After discovering large group of patients with chronic secretory D of inapparent cause)
- Factitious D („not natural“ e.g. laxative abuse)
167
trend towards patient oriented classifications??
differentiated classification helps in accurate diagnosis, very individualised, diet, medications, surgery, AIDS, are all individual adding factors to special cases of diarrhoea
treatment is still mainly symptomatic, because aetiology remains often obscure
1985
diarrhoeal Disease and Malnutrition: A Clinical Update
Gracey M. Ediarrhoea
Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh, London, Melbourne and New York
V:
Foreword
1940: D was common in a Melbourne hospital, infecting agents known were shigella and salmonella, cholera was not a problem anymore, viruses were suspected but not identified
Vi
Intestinal biopsy technology late 1950s lead to deeper understanding of malabsorbtion and new classifications of D
Vii
1970S: understanding of viruses, notably rotavirus in cause of D, electronic microscope:
advance in classif took place along with advance in medical technology
Who developing world D projects included environmental, nutritional background, water supplies
1988
Cook G.C.: Communicable and Tropical Diseases
Heinemann Medical Books: London
72:
traveller’s D
Spanish flux, Poona poohs, Bombay runs, Hong Kong Dog,
73
became prominent after 1970
differs from countries and continents
several organisms my be responsible for a single attack
Traveller’s D includes bacteria, viruses, parasites
81
shigella is a bacillus generally considered to be responsible for bloody D in travellers along with Entamoeba histolytica (protozoa), is not always true.
82
small intestinal parasites divided into protozoa and helminths
84
helminths associated with malabsorption: Strongyloids stercoralis
„ not „ „ „“““““““: hook worm, tape worm
89 colorectal prozoa
divided into pathogenic ( Entamoeba histolytica) and non-pathogenic ( E.coli)
division depends on microscopic and medical technology internal investigations
isoenzyme techniques allow separation of 9 invasive and 13 non-invasive strains of E. histolytica
chronic or bloody D is now a symptom that can occur with any of these strains.
1990
A new short Textbook of Preventive Medicine for the Tropics
Lucas A O, Gilles H M
Edward Arnold: London, Melbourne, Auckland
My thoughts
Classification in acute and persistent/chronic D is a matter of statistics and health management. As the problem is pandemic and occurs in many different countries it is important to have an international classification scheme to monitor the disease globally. Thus WHO has defined D accordingly.
Classif of persistant D allows addressing different risk factors: age, nutrition, immunology, previous infections, concomitant bacteria etc.
On the other hand, advancement of science, especially in microscopic invasive techniques have lead to detailed knowledge on absorption of different arts of the intestines which led to further classification of D as malabsorption related or unrelated or small intestinal and colon related diarrhoea
Electronic microscopic technology and the entire science stream of virology and parasitology have brought detailed advanced knowledge on the actual causes for D, thus bringing about another classification which is important for medical treatment not so much for the patient who mostly doesn’t know about these classifications.
Patient related classification of D is important during taking the case history, when the patient will describe the symptom of D and use simple classifications such as frequency, consistency, colour, smell, etc. These are important classifications during the patient-doctor interaction and from there, along with additional tests the doctor had to come to an accurate diagnosis and treatment.
D is basically a symptom and not a cause of a disease, though D diseases are summarised as a classification. Thus these classifications overlap each other constantly, as the symptom can appear in many different types of illness.
New diseases like AIDS where D also appears occasionally, add new class to the entire spectrum.
Earlier on, epidemics were certainly a major driving force to classify and describe D diseases.
Because of the appearance of classifications at different times we find overlaps and ... in classifications, which makes it more difficult for medical practitioners to study and comprehend the complexity of the issues but also allows different entrances into the disease complex from where one can get to the right therapeutic conclusion
Conclusion one can say that medical classifications appeared in different times of history, depending on advancements in medical science or international monitoring schemes (WHO) to combat global disease and study their outcomes with statistical measures.
WHO: Readings on diarrhoea, Student Manual
Geneva 1992
P 4
Types of D
Def. D comprises three or more loose watery stools in 24 hrs.
- acute d: <14 days, E.coli, Shigella, Campylobacter jejuni, Cryptosporidium
- dysentery: def: d with blood, causes: annoerxia, bacterial, Shigella, E.coli, Salmonella
- persistent or chronic d: def: >14 days with actute start, no sible cause, E.coli, shigella, Cryptosporidium
diarrhoea epidemics: vibrio cholera, shigella dysenterica Type 1
10
rotavirus
most improtant cause of severe life-threatening D under 2 years of age
calssification: 4 serotypes, immunity after 1 infection, person to person transmission
20
watery D: loss of water and electrolytes >decrease of blood volume > cardiovascular collapse, death
- Secretory D: infectious D that leads to secretory D, E coli, vibrio cholera O1, rotavirus
- Osmotic D: can be due to purgatives, lactoseand glucose intollerance, increase in volume in the gut causes D
Therapy: ORAL REHYDRATION THERAPY (ORT) works for 95%
For home treatment and practical treatment palsn in developing countries thes types of D classified accoring to dehydration are essential.
WHO case record form uses classification accoring to dehydration becuase it is practical in the field without laboratory to classifiy microbes
125
classif focuses on dehydration and also if there is visible blood not on microbes
simple class of acute-persistent or dysentery is enough
1993
Bailliere’s Clinical Gastroenterology, Infectious diarrhoea
International Practice and Research
Gracey M. Bouchier I.A.diarrhoea ( eds.)
Vol 7/2 1993
Bailliere Tindal: London
p.195:
it is important to have an agre ment anout definitions. Def. Are not always celar in published reports which makes interepretation and comparison difficult.
This book calssifies:
- diarrhoea
- Dysentery
- Acute D
- Persistent or chronic D
196-7
classific. Of routes of transmission of infectious D: a) direct ( e.g. finger),
b) indirect ( e.f. conatminated food
classifc. Of cofactores: bottle feeding, contaminated water, AIDS malnutrition
these class touch on social issues as well
199 class acc to food poisoning organisms causing D
His class is helpful to control foodpoisoning and prevent food p.
365
Traveller’s D always separate clas.
Def: 3 or more unformed stool per day and one of the follwing symtomps: abdominal pain, cramps, nausea, vomiting, dysentery..., occuring within two weeks of arrival in a foerign country. 30-50% of travellers are affectediarrhoea
Useful calss because of special traget group
243
E.coli D
1940s first suggestion that e-coli caused D
advances in molecular biology lead to further class.
Now: 5 major categories of E- Coli: ETEC EIEC EPEC EHEC EaggEC (Levine, 1987), each of them have several sub groups ( p.245)
EPEC was detected in the 1980s as the main cause of D epeidemics in the UK in 1940s and 1950s.
You need a microbiology lab to classifiy these, not useful for the feield or undeveloped countries.
But this class. Has been indetified by gene coding worldwide.
263:
other bacterial D
“ Each year new organsims are found to be pathogens, and old ones are found to have new tricks that cause disease.”
Double classification is useful:
Watery, bloody and chronic and the underlining molecualr pathogens ( bacteria, virus, parasites)
Problem of drug restistance ( shigella)
There has been a change of focus from ameobas to bacterial pathogens!
264
treatment of chronic D is unclear becuase of malnurishment involved as a factor
classifi of organisms accoring to the part of the intestinal tract which is attacked by the toxins
class of INVASIVE organisms: salmonella, shigella, campylobacter, yersenia
These invasive organism invade the gut eptelium in the distal ileum and colon.
1996
Nicher Mark and Nichter Mimi, Anthrolpology and International Health
Asian Case Studies
Gordon and Breach Publishers
Chapter 5 p. 135-
Social Science Lessons from Diarrhea research and Their Application to ARI (acute respiratoy infections)
p.157 No.. 14
“Use local illness categories when evaluating the impact of health interventions.”
Study in Bangladesh on usage of ORS among D patients have shown that “use rates vary significantly by illness category.” A meaningful assesemnt of the project could only be done by analysing local illness categories and e.g. indigenous concepts of “blood” in diarrhoea The analysis of local illness categories in relation to ORS made a difference to programme planning and evaluation (Bangladesh Study by Chowdhury, Vaugan and Abed 1988).
Chapter 4 p. 111-134
111 dysentery accounts for 20% of D related eaths, 750 000 death per year
112
Health Social Science Research on the Study of Diarrheal Disease: A focus on Dysnetery.
Simply classif of secretory-watery D and invasive-inflammatory forms of dysentery. This class is useful in the field because “these two broad categories of enteric infection require disinct lind of monitoring and care.” (p.112)
Ehnographic data of South Asia and Phillipines suggest that health workers do not often distinguish between the two. They have been trained to judge the severity of D bin relation to signs of dehydration (see WHO Form) and give ORT. ORT needs to continue but bloody D needs promt antbiotic treatment-
Anthropoloical studies are requireed becuase this process depends on
-cutura conyepualisation of blood and blood loss
-local categories of blood stools
-language of illness
-sensitivity and specificity of local inllnes terms for bloody D which corespond to clinical cases of dyentery
-popular use of biomedical terms of D
-hometreatment
-perceived signs of illness severity ( bloody – sorcery involved)
-parnet health care decision making
-prescription pracices f local docotrs for bloody D
-pharmaceutical involvement
115
connotative and dennotative illness classifications
Good 1977 semantic ilness networks: connotative illnes categories
are important to look at because it shows that illness categoeries are embedded in culture and cannot be seen just dennotative
1998
Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine 14th ed
New York: McGraw-Hill