PSYCH 357 EXAM #2 REVIEW SHEET

*Note: Please note that this review sheet is NOT complete. This means that there may be material on the exam that is not included in this review sheet. You are responsible for all the material covered in class lecture, readings and section. However, you might also see that this exam review is quiet exhaustive and includes many different types of questions. This is for YOUR BENEFIT because you could easily be tested on any and all of this material. So, if you are able to go through this exam review sheet and answer most if not all of the questions without referring to your notes you will probably be in pretty good shape for the midterm. Please also remember that this test is CUMULATIVE and this exam sheet only covers material since the last midterm. You should review your notes and the Exam #1 Review Sheet (posted online) to prepare for the cumulative questions on the exam. Good luck!

  1. What is the major difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?

While an exocrine gland is ducted, an endocrine gland is a ductless gland that discharges hormones directly into the bloodstream and the released hormones are transported long distances through the blood to their target tissue where they act.

  1. What are the two simultaneously present endocrine glands of the pituitary gland?
  1. The posterior pituitary
  2. The anterior pituitary
  1. Do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands communicate?

No

  1. What is the tissue that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary?

The infindibulum

  1. Does the posterior pituitary produce hormones?

No! It only RELEASES hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus

  1. What are the two hypothalamic nuclei that produce hormones released by the posterior pituitary?
  1. Paraventricular nucleus
  2. Supraoptic nucleus
  1. What hormone does the paraventricular nucleus produce?

Oxytocin

  1. What hormone does the supraoptic nucleus produce?

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin

  1. What are the two things that oxytocin does?
  1. Stimulates milk letdown during breast feeding
  2. Stimulates contractions of the uterus
  1. What is the primary stimulus for oxytocin release?

Suckling of the breast sends a neural signal to the hypothalamus

  1. Are oxytocin levels high or low during labor?

High, but we do not know if a high level of oxytocin causes labor or is a result of labor

  1. What is a synthetic oxytocin that can be used to stimulate labor?

Pitocin

  1. What does ADH do?

Promotes the retention of water by blocking water loss in urine

  1. What are some inhibitors of ADH?

Caffeine and alcohol

  1. What does Vasopressin do?

Increases blood pressure, vasoconstrictor

  1. Explain how hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and released in the posterior pituitary

Cell bodies in the hypothalamus (specifically the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus) produce the hormone (oxytocin and ADH/ Vasopressin), they leave the cell bodies, travel down the cell axons through the infindibulum and then terminate in the posterior pituitary where those hormones are released into the pituitary and then into the blood stream where they act on their target tissue

  1. What is the median eminence?

The median eminence is the nucleus at the base of the hypothalamus where releasing hormonesenter the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system in order to be transported to the anterior pituitary gland.

  1. What is the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system?

It is a specialized blood vessel system that transports releasing hormones from the median eminence through the infindibulum to the anterior pituitary

  1. What structure produces releasing hormones?

The hypothalamus

  1. What are hormones that act “toward” a number of endocrine glands around the body controlling the production and release of hormones from these endocrine glands?

Tropic hormones

  1. What structure produces tropic hormones?

The anterior pituitary

  1. What are the five tropic hormones?
  1. ACTH4. MSH
  2. TSH5. BLPH
  3. GH
  1. What are the three gonadotropic hormones?

1. FSH2. LH 3. Prolactin

  1. Are gonadotropic hormones tropic hormones?

Yes

  1. What is the target tissue of ACTH and what does it do?

Target tissue: adrenal cortex, controls the production and release of the sex steroids (estrogens, androgens and progesterone)

  1. What is the target tissue of TSH and what does it do?

Target tissue: thyroid gland, controls metabolic rate

  1. What is the target tissue of GH and what does it do?

Target tissue: liver, affects growth rate

  1. What is the target tissue of MSH and what does it do?

Target tissue: melanocytes, acts at the skin to change pigmentation

  1. What does BLPHdo?

Precursor of the endorphins (natural opiates)

  1. What are the two functions of FSH?

1. Stimulates follicle growth

2. Works with LH to stimulate ovulation

  1. When is FSH most abundant in the menstrual cycle?

At the beginning of the cycle (preovulatory phase)and at ovulation

  1. What does FSH do in men?

Stimulates the production of sperm

  1. What are the four functions of LH?
  1. Stimulates estrogen production by the ovarian follicle
  2. Works with FSH to simulate ovulation
  3. Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum
  4. Stimulates estrogen production by the corpus luteum
  1. When is LH most abundant in the menstrual cycle?

At ovulation, but generally pretty present all throughout cycle

  1. What does LH do in men?

Stimulates the production of testosterone

  1. What are the two functions of Prolactin?
  1. Stimulates progesterone production by the corpus luteum
  2. Stimulates milk production by mammary glands
  1. Can a woman have excessively high or excessively low prolactin levels and still be fertile?

Probably not

  1. What are the two hormones needed in breastfeeding and what are their functions?
  1. Oxytocin (produced by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary) stimulates milk letdown
  2. Prolactin (produced and released by the anterior pituitary) stimulates the alveoli of the mammary glands to begin producing milk
  1. What are releasing hormones and what do they do?

Releasing hormones are hormones produced in the hypothalamus which travel through the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system to the anterior pituitary and stimulate and inhibit the production and release of the tropic hormones.

  1. What are the seven releasing hormones (RH)?
  1. Corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH)
  2. Thyrotropic hormone releasing hormone (TRH)
  3. Somatostatin
  4. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
  5. Gonadotropin hormone releasing hormone (GnRH)
  6. Dopamine
  7. Prolactin stimulating hormone (PSH)
  1. What hormone does CRH affect?

ACTH

  1. Does CRH stimulate or inhibit the production and release of ACTH?

Stimulate

  1. What hormone does TRH affect?

TSH

  1. Does TRH stimulate or inhibit the production and releaseof TSH?

Stimulate

  1. What hormone does Somatostatin affect?

GH

  1. Does Somatostatin stimulate or inhibit the production and release of GH?

Inhibit

  1. What hormone does GHRH affect?

GH

  1. Does GHRH stimulate or inhibit the production and release of GH?

Stimulate

  1. What hormone(s) does GnRH affect?

LH and FSH

  1. Does GnRH stimulate or inhibit the production and release of LH and FSH?

Stimulate

  1. Where is inhibin produced?

Both the ovarian follicle and corpus luteum

  1. What hormone does Dopamine affect?

Prolactin

  1. Does Dopamine stimulate or inhibit the production of and release prolactin?

Inhibit

  1. What hormone does PSH affect?

Prolactin

  1. Does PSH stimulate or inhibit the production and release of prolactin?

Stimulates

  1. What hormone does inhibin affect? When, how and why?

Inhibin inhibits the production of FSH once the Graafian follicle begins developing during the preovulatory phase and throughout the postovulatory phase of the monthly cycle. . Inhibin acts directly on the anterior pituitary to block the stimulation of FSH by GnRH. This inhibition allows FSH levels to be low even when GnRH levels are high. This occurs because you do not want additional follicles (eggs/ova) to be growing while the Graafian follicle is currently maturing or while the ovulated ovum might be fertilized, so inhibin prevents the production of FSH so more follicles do not begin to grow and mature until the corpus luteum dies.

  1. What RH releases two tropic hormones?

GnRH releases both LH and FSH

  1. What tropic hormone(s) is/are affected by two RH?

GH is stimulated by GHRH and inhibited by Somatostatin

Prolactin is stimulated by PSH and inhibited by dopamine

  1. How does very low estrogen affect GnRH in adult women?

Stimulates the production of GnRH

  1. How does moderate estrogen affect GnRH in adult women?

Inhibits GnRH

  1. How does very high estrogen affect GnRH in adult women?

Stimulates GnRH

  1. What type of feedback system regulates most of the hormonal systems in the body?

Negative feedback

  1. What type of feedback loop is between FSH/LH and GnRH?

Negative feedback: GnRH stimulates LH/FSH, increased levels of LH/FSH inhibit GnRH

  1. What is the type of feedback loop between estrogen and GnRH?

Negative feedback for low and moderate estrogen and positive feedback for very high estrogen

  1. When is the one time of the month when estrogen overrides the “negative feedback” system and makes it go to a “positive feedback” loop and why?

Estrogen overrides the system 24 hours before ovulation when the Graafian follicle sends a signal to the hypothalamus by dumping all of its remaining estrogen into the bloodstream. This very high estrogen level in the bloodstream stimulates the production and release of a ton of GnRH which then stimulates a ton of FSH and LH which is needed in order to trigger ovulation. So, massive release of E massive release of GnRH massive release of LH and FSH ovulation

  1. List the Estrogen levels across the monthly cycle:

1. Levels start to increase on Day 1 and gradually increase throughout the preovulatory phase (because the follicles are growing)

2. Surge (sharp increase) 24 hours prior to ovulation.

3. Levels decrease after surge (through ovulation).

4. Levels rise during the postovulatory phase as the corpus luteum develops.

5. Drop off just before menses when the corpus luteum dies.

  1. List the Progesterone levels across the monthly cycle:

1. Levels low on Day 1

2. Stay very low throughout the preovulatory phase

3. Increase during the postovulatory phase with the development of the corpus luteum

4. Drop off just before menses with the death of the corpus luteum

  1. List the FSH levels across the monthly cycle:

1. Begin to rise at the end of the postovulatory phase.

2. Decrease in late preovulatory phase.

3. Surge at the exact time of ovulation.

4. Decrease after ovulation and stays low throughout most of the postovulatory phase

  1. List the LH levels across the monthly cycle:

1. Begin to increase on Day 1 to stimulate estrogen

2. Rise to moderate level and stay relatively steady for the rest of the preovulatory phase

3. Surge on the day of ovulation.

4. Declines right after ovulation while stimulating the formation of the CL

5. Increases toward the end of the luteal phase and then declines again

  1. How do women's sexual experiences change with the monthly cycle?

Both male- and female-initiated behaviors peak during ovulation

  1. What is the adrenal gland and where is it located in the body?

The adrenal glands are structures each made up of two simultaneously present independent endocrine glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. They sit in the abdominal cavity right above each kidney.

  1. What is the adrenal medulla and what is its function?

Gland (may or may not be an endocrine gland) at the inner core of the adrenal gland that produces adrenaline and noradrenalin in response to stress like being hungry, hot, scared, etc.

  1. What is the adrenal cortex and what is its function?

Gland at the outer cortex of the adrenal gland that produces and releases adrenocortical hormones in response to stimulation from the tropic hormone ACTH that is stimulated by the releasing hormone CRH. So, CRH ACTH adrenocortical hormones

  1. What are the three adrenocortical hormones that the adrenal cortex releases and what are their functions?
  1. Glucocorticoidscontrols glucose metabolism and food intake
  2. Mineralocorticoidsregulate levels of minerals and electrolytes such as sodium or potassium
  3. Sex steroids (androgen, estrogen and progesterone) various actions on the body
  1. Are steroid hormones fat or water soluble?

Fat soluble

  1. What is the major source of androgen for women?

The adrenal cortex

  1. What is the best known and strongest androgen (especially in men)?

Testosterone

  1. What is the most prevalent form of androgen in women?

Androstenedione

  1. How does androstenedione have a testosterone effect in women without having the overall masculinizing effect of testosterone?

Androgen travels through the woman’s body mainly in its relatively weak form. When it gets to its target tissue, androstenedione is converted into the more powerful androgen, testosterone. This way, the testosterone acts only on the specific tissue it is meant for and does not masculinize the rest of the body on its way to the specific target tissue.

  1. What are the three actions of androgen?
  1. Controls sex drive
  2. Controls acne
  3. Stimulates the growth of pubic and underarm hair
  1. What is the precursor from which all sex steroids including progesterone, androstenedione, testosterone and estrogen are produced?

Cholesterol

  1. Are the sex steroid chemicals and their hormone precursors chemically very different or very similar from one another?

Chemically very similar. In fact, sometimes the receptors for these hormones can get confused by similar hormones and will respond to the wrong hormone. This rarely if ever happens with hormones naturally produced by the body but it does account for why some synthetic hormones, like synthetic estrogen, can have progesterone-like or androgen-like activity in addition to their estrogen-like activity

  1. What are prostaglandins and what effect do they have on the uterus?

These are local hormones (paracrines), meaning they act on tissues very close to their site of production. Women with dysmenorrhea (cramps) have very high levels of prostaglandin in their uteri. Cramps are caused by the prostaglandins stimulating small contractions of the uterine muscle.

  1. Can any drugs inhibit prostaglandins? If so, which ones? When should they be taken?

Over the counter drugs like ibuprofen, aspirin and acetaminophen can be taken to inhibit prostaglandin production by the endometrium but must be taken 1-2 days before cramps start in order to stop the release of the hormones.

  1. What role do prostaglandins play in labor?

Prostaglandin levels are high during labor and can be used to stimulate labor along with oxytocin

  1. What is the difference between puberty and adolescence?

Puberty refers to the biological maturation of an individual from being unable to reproduce to being able to reproduce while adolescence refers to the social transition in which an individual moves from a dependent, child like role to an independent, adult role.

  1. What is the concern about the disparity between puberty and adolescence?

The concern is that individuals that enter into adolescence before they enter into puberty will face pressures to engage in adult-like behaviors (dating, sex, smoking, drinking) long before they are considered mature enough to make decisions about such behaviors.

  1. What do Frisch and Tanner report about the age of menarche?

The age of menarche has decreased over time

  1. What’s significant about the fact that Frisch’s data included girls from Denver?

Frisch included data from girls in Denver where high altitude delays pubertal developmental and menarche

  1. What does Herman-Giddens report about the age of menarche and ethnicity?

The average age of menarche for Black girls is younger than for White girls (12.2 vs. 12.9 years old) and furthermore suggests that the age of menarche has stabilized for White girls (because same as Frisch’s findings) but cannot say the same for Black girls because we don’t have earlier data.

  1. What are Tanner’s five stages of pubertal development?
  1. Start of the adolescent growth spurt
  2. Thelarche
  3. Simultaneous adrenarche and peak of the growth spurt
  4. Underarm hair formation
  5. Menarche
  1. What hormone(s) are involved in the adolescent growth spurt?

Estrogen, androgen and growth hormone

  1. What is thelarche and what two things occur in this stage?

Thelarche= the budding of the breasts

  1. Areola increases in size
  2. Increased breast fat deposition
  1. What hormone(s) are involved in thelarche?

Estrogen and prolactin

  1. What is adrenarche and what hormone(s) are involved?

Adrenarche= pubic hair formation and it is an androgen effect

  1. What hormone(s) are involved in underarm hair formation?

Androgen only

  1. What is menarche?

The first menses

  1. Is growth addressed in Herman-Giddens’ study of puberty and adolescence?

No!

  1. What does Brooks-Gunn specify as an “early maturer”?

Those who begin to menstruate in grade six or earlier, so about 11 or less years old

  1. What are the six things that Brooks-Gunn has to say about early maturers?
  1. Have a poorer attitude towards menstruation
  2. More likely to report severe menstrual symptoms
  3. Have a poorer body image
  4. Poorer preparation for menarche
  5. May have poorer self-esteem (especially if they change schools a lot)
  6. Earlier onset of dating, smoking, sex and drinking (adult-like behaviors)
  1. What are the two things that Brooks-Gunn has to say about late maturers?
    1. Increased tension and lower self-esteem than their menstruating peers before they reach menarche
    2. After menarche, differences in self-esteem and tension disappear

  1. Draw a picture of the relative hormone level changes that occur during puberty: