Comprehension portion of the Final Exam-This is just a Brief overview and NOT an Exhaustive List!

UNIT 1: Homeostasis, RBCs, ANEMIA, HORMONES, and MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

  1. HOMEOSTASIS-What is it? Why does it occur? Understand Negative and positive feedback mechanisms
  1. HORMONES: What makes a cell a target cell? Review gene expression: DNA to RNA is transcription (where does this occur?) and RNA to protein is translation (where does this occur?). What is the ultimate effect of a hormone (ans: it alters cellular activity by increasing or decreasing protein synthesis and/ or activity). Understand how a blood test for levels of hormones within a given pathway can lead to diagnosis of glandular dysfunction (see thyroid problems below).
  1. THYROID PROBLEMS: what is Grave’s disease? Hashimoto’s? What hormones would be elevated in the HPT axis? Which would be depressed?
  1. RED BLOOD CELLS: How does one blood type? What are antigens? What cells, in a patient receiving blood would attack blood perceived to be foreign? What is HDN? How are RBC’s made? What ingredients are necessary? What are the different types of anemia? What is Polycythemia? How are RBC’s degraded: what is unconjugated vs. conjugated bilirubin?
  1. HEMOSTASIS: How do we clot our blood? What are anti-coagulants and how do they work? Review heparin, coumarin, citrate, EGTA, and TPA. What is protamine and when is it used clinically? How can liver dysfunction lead to vitamin K deficiency and ultimately a problem with hemostasis?
  1. BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS: What are the body fluid compartments? What mOsmolal concentration should they be? How can solutes that can’t diffuse across body fluid compartments affect the water in the body fluid compartments (review: hypo vs hyer-osmotic solutions)

UNIT 2: NERVOUS SYSTEM: CELL SIGNALING, ANS, ACTION POTENTIALS, and membrane transport (again)

  1. CELL SIGNALING: In what ways may a cell respond to a signal? ( hint: think changes in protein activity or expression). What kinds of substances serve as second messengers?
  1. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: Parasympathetic pathways: The different receptors for Ach, their locations, and their actions/ second messengers. Sympathetic: The different receptors for Norepinephrine, their locations, and their actions/ second messengers
  1. RESTING MEMBRANE AND ACTION POTENTIALS: Review transmission of nerve signals: resting membrane potentials, graded responses, action potentials, role of neurotransmitters.. How does calcium stabilize sodium channels (see page 65 of G&H 11th edition)
  1. IONS: Review what Na+, K+, Ca+2 do for the cell and its functions. What ions are involved in resting membrane potentials? Action potentials? Releasing neurotransmitters? How do local anesthetics work on ion channels?

UNIT THREE: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

  1. AUTORHYTHMICITY OF THE HEART: Review the electrical activity of the heart and how the message is transmitted. How does the sympathetic and parasympathetic influence the autorhythmicity of the specialized cells? Also review the ECG—what do all the waves, segments, and intervals show?
  1. Baroreceptor reflex: What happens when venous return increases? What happens when a patient is hemorrhaging severely?
  1. PHARMACOLOGY OF THE HEART: How does digitalis work? Propanolol? Atropine? Epinephrine? Pilocarpine?
  1. VALVULAR PROBLEMS: If there is a prolapsed or stenotic valve, which chamber will be affected? Where will you see hypertrophy? Where will you see edema? What problems do you associate with PDA? What shunt would be in place with PDA? Left to right or right to left?

UNIT FOUR: THE RENAL SYSTEM

  1. FILTRATION AND REABSORPTION: Under what condition will the kidney be signaled to reabsorb sodium/secrete potassium? Describe how this occurs and where it occurs by both the autonomic nervous system and macula densa cells. Under what two conditions will extra water be reabsorbed from the kidney? What is the signal for these?
  1. ACID/BASE CONTROL: How does the kidney “reabsorb” bicarbonate? How can bicarbonate be synthesized? How is excess acid (Hydrogen ions) secreted from the kidney tubular cells? What do these hydrogen ions bind to?
  1. DIURETICS: Review your diuretics and where they work on the nephron.
  1. URINE ANALYSIS: What solutes/conditions would you expect in patients with diabetes mellitus? Diabetes insipidus?