Gardner S Art Through the Ages: a Concise History

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PREHISTORY AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

PALEOLITHIC ART

TEXT PAGES 14-29

1. What is thought to have been the purpose of the figure known as the Venus of Willendorf (FIG. 1-1)? The Venus of Willendorf is believed to be a fertility image. (page 15)

2. The cavern of Pech-Merle contains a number of handprints, some of which are described as “negative” (FIG. 1-3), others as “positive.” “What techniques did the artists apparently use to create these prints?

Negative prints:Negative prints are created when one’s hand is placed against the cave wall and pigment is blown, spit, or brushed against the hand. (page 18)

Positive prints:Positive prints are created by dipping one’s hand into pigment and pressing it against the cave wall. (page 18)

What are the handprints thought to have meant? The exact meaning of these handprints is unknown, but some scholars believe they could have served as “signatures.” (page 18)

3. Describe the organization of the animal images from Lascaux (FIG. 1-4). Are they composed as a single composition? What viewpoint does the artist take when describing the animals?

At Lascaux, the animal images include various species of animals, some painted in outline and others in colored silhouettes. The Paleolithic painter was only concerned with depicting the animals and omitted any reference to a setting. (page 18)

What is twisted perspective and how was it used at Lascaux?

Twisted perspective depicts objects in a descriptive manner, rather than an optical manner. At Lascaux, the bulls horns are placed in twisted perspective so that both horns are visible. (page 18-19)

What evidence could be given to support the notion that the animals at Lascaux were painted at different times?

Differences in style and technique have led scholars to believe that the animals at Lascaux were painted at different times. (page 18)

NEOLITHIC ART

1. List three changes in artistic production that paralleled the shift from a food-gathering to a food-producing society. (page 19)

a.development of weaving

b. development of metalworking

c. development of pottery

2. List two ways in which the Deer Hunt from Çatal Höyük (FIG. 1-6) relates to Paleolithic paintings:

a.Animals of the hunt are depicted in both. (page 20)

b.Use of composite view of the human body, much like the twisted perspective of the Paleolithic animals. (page 20)

What technique was used? Pigment was applied with a brush to pre-treated walls. (page 20)

Describe the convention used for depicting human beings:Humans are depicted in a composite view with the head, arms, and legs in profile and the torso in a frontal view. (page 20)

3. What purpose do you think the figure from Ain Ghazal (FIG. 1-7) might have served?

Answers may vary.

The figures from Ain Ghazal may have been associated with burial rituals of the Neolithic people. (page 21)

4. What is a megalith? Megaliths are enormous, roughly cut stones used by Neolithic people for monumental architecture. Megalith also means great stone. (page 21)

5. Approximately when and why was Stonehenge thought to have been erected? Stonehenge is believed to have been created over a period of time around 2000 BCE. It is believed to have served as an astronomical observatory or calendar. (page 21)

Stonehenge is an early example of the post-and-lintel system. Draw a simple diagram of Stonehenge below and point out the lintels.

SUMERIAN ART

1. The land known as Mesopotamia lay between what two rivers?

a.Tigrisb.Euphrates (page 22)

Why was this area known as the “Fertile Crescent”?The “Fertile Crescent” is so named because the mountains that surround this productive piece of land give it a crescent shape. (page 22)

2. Define or identify the following terms and make sure you understand what they mean in relation to Sumerian art:

city-stateIndependent urban communities each run by separate governments and believed to be under the protection of a different Mesopotamian diety. (page 22)

cuneiformThe earliest known writing system which is composed of different wedge-shaped signs. (page 22)

3. Make a simple drawing of a Sumerian ziggurat and temple below.

What material did they use?Mud bricks (page 22)

How was the ziggurat oriented? The corners of the ziggurat were oriented toward the four cardinal points of the compass (north, south, east, west). (page 22)

4.The Warka vase is the first known example of narrative (page 23) relief sculpture (FIG. 1-11). What does it depict? The Warka vase depicts a religious festival dedicated to Inanna, the goddess of love and war. (page 23)

5. What is a votive offering?A votive offering is a something made for and given to a deity as a sign of gratitude and thanksgiving, usually in fulfillment of a vow. (page 24)

What underlying forms were used to create the votive statues shown on FIG. 1-12?

The shapes of cones and cylinders. (page 24)

What is the meaning of their hand gestures and oversized eyes? The clasp hands and large eyes are gestures of eternal prayer. (page 24)

6. Look very carefully at the Standard of Ur (FIG. 1-13) and describe the subject. What seems to be going on? Describe the style; for example, the way the human beings and animals are represented. Examine the relative sizes of the figures, the way the bodies are turned, the way animals are represented behind one another, etc. (Answers may vary and are based on observation.)

Subject:The Standard of Ur depicts the Sumerians in times of war and peace. (page 24-25)

Style:Composite perspective, hieratic scale (where more important figures are shown larger), profiles repeated to denote multiples or groups, flat images with no modeling, strict registers.

AKKADIAN, NEO-SUMERIAN, AND BABYLONIAN ART

1. What new political idea was introduced by the Akkadians, and how did they express it in their art? Under the Akkadians, political loyalty was placed in the royal power of the king, and no longer in the city-state. This concept was expressed through depictions of the king in art. (page 26)

2. The head of the Akkadian ruler shown in FIG. 1-14 combines both naturalism and formal abstract patterning. List three features that you think are examples of each: (page 26)

NaturalismAbstract patterning

a.eyes are closer to life-sizea.tightly curled beard

b.naturalistic noseb.plaited hair

c.naturalistic mouthc.curve of the eyebrows

3. List two features of the Stele of Naram-Sin (FIG. 1-15) that indicate its subject’s super-human status.

a.Naram-Sin is depicted alone. (page 26)

b.Naram-Sin is portrayed in a larger scale than his men. (page 26)

4. What is the significance of the Stele of Hammurabi (FIG. 1-16)?

Politically:The Stele of Hammurabi is a unified code of written laws. (page 27)

Aesthetically (be sure to note the foreshortening): Shamash’s headdress is shown in true profile and his beard is depicted with foreshortening as if receding back into space. (page 28)

ASSYRIAN ART, NEO-BABYLONIAN ART,

ACHAEMENID PERSIAN ART

1. The doorway of the citadel of Sargon II was guarded by figures known as

lamassu (page 28) . Describe them or sketch them below.

A lamassu is a composite beast with a bearded man’s head, wings, and the body of a bull. (page 28)

Why were they portrayed with five legs? The lamassu was given five legs so that from the front two legs are seen in the resting position and four legs can still be seen from the side in motion. (page 28)

2. What subjects were most commonly portrayed in Assyrian reliefs? Scenes from the hunt, particularly lion hunting. (page 29)

3. One of the seven wonders of the ancient world was created by Nebuchadnezzar. What was it and where was it located?

The famous hanging gardens of Babylon. (page 29)

4. The Ishtar Gate in Babylon (FIG. 1-19) was created of mud brick and covered with

blue glaze . (page 29) What motifs were used to decorate it? Dragons and bulls (page 30)

5. Define or identify the following terms and make sure you understand their meaning and their importance to the discussion of Persian art:

AchaemenidsA group of Persian rules who formed the Achaemenid Dynasty and traced their lineage back to the mythical King Achaemenes. The Achaemenid kings Darius I and Xerxes built the citadel at Persepolis. (page 30)

SasaniansA later group of Persians who called themselves the Sasanians after the Sasan, a legendary descendant of the Achaemenid kings. (page 31)

6. The great palace at Persepolis was erected to symbolize Persian imperial power. The architects created a powerful synthesis of architectural and sculptural elements drawn from the following cultures: Greek, Assyrian, and other Mediterranean and Near Eastern civilizations of the time. (page 31)

List four architectural features of the palace: (page 31)

a.Monumental gateway (Gate of All Lands) with Assyrian-inspired lamassus

b.Broad ceremonial stairways

c.Royal audience hall (apadana) containing colossal columns

d.Extensive reliefs decorating the walls of the terrace and staircases

EGYPTIAN ART

1. Briefly describe the role played by the Nile in the development of Egyptian civilization.

The Nile sustained the Egyptian civilization with its annual floods that replenished rich soil for farming and provided water. The Nile also supported wildlife that the Egyptians hunted and papyrus that the Egyptians cultivated. (page 31)

2. The Palette of Narmer (FIG. 1-21), which was created about 3000 BCE, is extremely important in Egyptian history and art for several reasons. The Palette of Narmer is the earliest existing labeled work of historical art and marks a transition from the prehistorical to the historical period in ancient Egypt. (page 31-32)

Politically, it documents:The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. (page 31)

Culturally, it records two important facts:

about religion:The pharaoh was believed to be a divine ruler. (page 32)

about writing:It records Narmer’s name in hieroglyphics. (page 32)

Artistically, it embodies conventions that will dominate Egyptian official art to the end of the New Kingdom, namely: (Answers based on observation.)

a.Hieratic scale- where the more important figures are larger in scale.

b.Composite perspective- heads, arms, legs, and feet depicted in profile, while shoulders and torso are shown frontally.

c. Figures set on strict registers.

3. Draw a simple diagram of a mastaba, and describe its function.

A mastaba is the standard type of Egyptian tomb. (page 33)

4. Who was Imhotep, and what important building did he design?

Imhotep was the royal architect for King Djoser. Imhotep designed and built the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. (page 34)

5. List the three great periods of Egyptian history: (page 34)

a.Old Kingdom

b.Middle Kingdom

c.New Kingdom

6. In what way do the pyramids of Gizeh differ from King Djoser’s pyramid at Saqqara?

The design and shape of the pyramids of Gizeh were based on the sun cult of Re. These pyramids were oriented toward the rising sun. Conversely, King Djoser’s pyramid at Saqqara consists of a stepped pyramid and was laid out according to the cardinal compass. (pages 34-35)

7. What is thought to have been the function of the Great Sphinx of Gizeh?

The Great Sphinx of Gizeh is thought to be an image of either Khafre or Khufu. The sphinx itself is a symbol associated with the sun god. (page 36)

8. What was the primary purpose of the statue of Khafre (FIG. 1-26)?

The primary purpose of a statue such as that of Khafre was to serve as resting places for the ka or spirit of the deceased. (page 36)

What does the hawk symbolize? It represents the falcon god Horus. (page 36)

List four stylistic characteristics of the statue. (page 36)

a. Flawless figure with idealized proportions

b. Solid compact forms

c. Serene mood

d. Rigid, frontal, bilaterally symmetric pose

9. What is meant by the “canon of human proportions,” and what technique did the Egyptians use to apply it to their figures? A canon or system of proportions was used to depict all people regardless of people’s natural variations. Figures were created based on a grid of squares. (page 38)

Select an appropriate figure, and use it to illustrate the function of the canon.

10. What subjects were commonly depicted on the walls of Egyptian tombs and what was their purpose?

Depictions of agriculture and hunting were common in Egyptian tombs. They were meant to serve the ka in the afterlife. (page 38)

11. Define or identify the following individuals and terms:

Akhenaton New Kingdom pharaoh who reformed Egyptian religion to worship one god, Aton. (page 41)

Amarna style The style of art associated with the reign of Akhenaton, in which figures are depicted with elongated heads, relaxed poses, and distorted bodies. (page 41)

Hatshepsut New Kingdom pharaoh and first great female ruler whose name has been recorded. (page 39)

Nefertiti Akhenaton’s queen who figures prominently in the decoration of the Aton temple at Karnak. (page 42)

Ramses II New Kingdom pharaoh and military leader who conquered Nubia, Syria, and Palestine. He also built extensively. (pages 39-40)

Tutankhamen Young pharaoh who succeeded Akhenaton and ruled from 1333-1323 BCE. Famous today because his tomb was unplundered and contained many rich artifacts. (page 42)

12. Briefly describe a typical pylon temple and make a simple diagram to illustrate it. (page 41)

• Bilaterally symmetrical along a single axis
• Consists of an avenue that leads to a colonnaded court and hall, then to a sanctuary.
• Axial corridor through the pylon temple complex

13. Do the same for the diagram of a Hypostyle Hall (note the clerestory). (page 41)

• Large columns that support a tiered, stone slab roof
• Post and lintel construction
• Central row of columns are taller than the those at the sides, allowing the presence of a clerestory

14. List three features of Queen Nefertiti (FIG. 1-34) that reflect the new conventions of the Amarna style. (pages 41-42)

a. Elongated head and curving neck

b. Heavy eyelids

c. Full lips

15. Although Ramses II lived after Akhenaton, the pillar statues that were carved for the interior of his temple (FIG. 1-30) ignore many of the stylistic features developed by Amarna artists. Compare the figures from the Temple of Ramses II with the pillar statue of Akhenaton (FIG. 1-33). Note particularly the differences in the proportions of the figures. What political factors might account for these differences?

Akhenaton (page 41)Ramses II (page 40)

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• Elongated proportions
• Full lips
• Heavy eyelids
• Curving body shape

• Massive, bulky proportions
• Heavy, thick limbs
• More idealized body type

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(Note: Other observations may be possible)

In this instance, artistic conventions became associated with political rule and religious practice. Since the pharaohs after Akhenaton did not agree with and therefore did no continue his religious practices of worshiping one god (Aton), they reverted back to the artistic conventions used prior to Akhenaton’s rule as a sign of their beliefs.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. In what way did the social and economic changes that took place in human development between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods affect the art produced in each period?

2. Compare the figure from Ain Ghazal (FIG. 1-7) with the Venus of Willendorf (FIG. 1-1). In what ways are they similar and how do they differ in their forms and their probable purposes? When comparing two figures you can begin with facts like size, material and technique, approximate date, and what is know about where they were found. Then go on to describe the bodily features of each figure and how the similarities and differences might be interpreted.

3. Discuss the social and economic changes that took place in the ancient Near East that made possible the beginning of what we call civilization.

4. How did the religion practiced by Sumerians differ from that practiced by Paleolithic hunters and how were those religions reflected in art? What was the relationship between religion and the state in ancient Sumer?

5. How does the artwork shown in this chapter (such as the Victory Stele of Naram Sin, the Stele of Hammurabi, the Assyrian reliefs, and the great palace at Persepolis) reflect the changing religious and political ideas of the ancient Near East?

6. In what ways are the figures on the temple of Ramses II (FIG. 1-30) related to the figure of Khafre (FIG. 1-26), both stylistically and in terms of function?

7. Compare the supposed portraits of Menkaure and Khamerernebty on FIG. 1-27 with the Sumerian figures shown on FIG 1-12. What differences do you see, and how might these differences reflect differing religious views?

8. Compare the Egyptian Pyramid of Djoser (FIG. 1-23) with the WhiteTemple and Ziggurat, Uruk (FIG. 1-10). In what ways are they similar? How do they differ? What was the function of each?

9. What do the Great Pyramids of Gizeh (FIG. 1-24), the temples of Hatshepsut (FIG. 1-29) and Ramses II (FIGS. 1-30), the ziggurat at Uruk (FIG. 1-10) and the palace at Persepolis (FIG. 1-20) say about the major concerns of the men and societies that commissioned them?