Action Research in Schools

Disclaimer: The article below is taken from I had adjusted the formatting and added the italics to emphasize the significance of the discussion.

Associate Prof. Dr. Jaafar Jantan

Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam

email: ; Mobile: +60193551621

What Is Research?

Overview

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. This chapter explains what research is and what it is not. Eight characteristics of research are presented. The process of research as a helical cycle is discussed.

What is Basic Research?

Gel electrophoresisat LBL's Human Genome Center

Basic (akafundamentalorpure) research is driven by a scientist'scuriosityor interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is toexpand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:

How did the universe begin?
What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
How do slime molds reproduce?
What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research lays down thefoundationfor the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. AsDr. George Smootof LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If weonlydid applied research, we would still be making better spears."

Basic Research

Important Examples BYT(Before Your Time)

Model of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

There have been many historical examples in which basic research has played a vital role in the advancement of scientific knowledge.
Here are just a few important examples:

Our understanding ofgeneticsandheredityis largely due to the studies ofGregor Mendel, who studiedpea plantsin the 1860's, and the experiments withfruitfliesby T.H. Morgan in the early 20th century. These organisms were used because it was easier to design experiments using pea plants and fruitflies than using higher forms of life. (Fruitflies are still being used today in theHuman Genome Project!)

DNAhas been called the "ladder of life". Today, thedouble-helix structureof DNA is routinely introduced in middle school life science classes, but in the early 1950's, the structure of DNA was still being determined. Using data gathered from the previous basic research of other scientists, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered thestructural designof the DNA molecule in 1953. Determining DNA's structure was vital to our understanding ofhow DNA worked.

Many of today's electrical devices (e.g.,radios,generatorsandalternators) can trace their roots to the basic research conducted by Michael Faraday in 1831. He discovered theprinciple of electromagnetic induction, that is, the relationship betweenelectricityandmagnetism.

At LBNL's Advanced Light Source,x-raysare used to help us to probe into very tiny samples of materials. But our understanding of theproperties of x-raysbegan with the fundamental experiments ofWilhelm Rontgenin 1895.

In 1931,Earnest O. Lawrenceinvented the first functional cyclotron, a device that would allow scientists to accelerate atomic particles to incredible speeds. Soon after, the Berkeley National Laboratory was established. Subsequent basic research at LBNL led to the discovery of many radioactive isotopes. Some of these isotopes -- such as carbon-14, cobalt-60, hydrogen-3 (tritium), iodine-131, and technetium-99 -- later became vital research tools used by biologists, paleontologists, and archeologists, or as aids in themedical treatmentof various diseases. Radio-isotope research at LBNL also included the creation of 15 of the so-called "heavy" (transuranic) elements. Albert Ghiorso, co-discoverer of 12 heavy elements,explains whythe pursuit of new manmade elements is a worthwhile venture.

Each of these scientists was trying to learn about thebasic natureof the phenomena that they were studying. Only today can we see thevast implicationsof their research!

What is Applied Research?

Aerogel'sinsulating properties displayed

Applied research is designed to solvepractical problemsof the modern world, rather than to aqcquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is toimprove the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

improve agricultural crop production
treat or cure a specific disease
improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting fromglobal overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.

How hasappliedresearch been important in thepast?

What isbasicresearch?

Applied Research

Important Examples BYT(Before Your Time)

Magnified view of an Integrated Circuit

There have been many historical examples in which applied research has had a major impact on our daily lives. In many cases, theapplicationwas derived long before scientists had a good, basic understanding of themunderlying science. (One might envision a scientist sitting at his lab bench, scratching his head and saying to himself, "I know it works; I just don't really know how it works!")
Here are just a few examples:

Prior to the 1950's,vacuum tubeswere used as triodes in electrical devices such as radios. In 1948, 3 researchers at AT & T's Bell Laboratories (John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley) invented thetransistor, a solid state triode that would revolutionize the electronics industry. Indeed, the transistor made possible the invention of theintegrated circuit(the key component in microprocessors) by Jack Kilby ten years later.

Vaccinationsagainst various diseases save countless lives each year. The first use of a vaccine occurred in the late 1790's. Edward Jenner developed a technique for vaccinating people againstsmallpox, a disease that once killed millions of people. In 1885,Louis Pasteursuccessfully innoculated a patient with arabiesvaccine. More recently, Jonas Salk developed a vaccine forpolioin 1953; an oral form of the vaccine was produced by Albert Sabin in 1961.

A classic case ofserendipity(chance discovery) took place in 1928. Sir Alexander Fleming was trying to find chemicals that behaved asantibiotics, substances that kill bacteria. A Penicillium mold accidentally contaminated one of his bacterial cultures. He observed that the bacteria could not grow near the mold, suggesting that the mold was producing a natural anti-bacterial agent. After years of research to isolate and purify the substance, our first true antibiotic,penicillinreached the marketplace. Fleming stated that "nature created penicillin. I only found it."

Velcrohas been used routinely for only the last few years or so. It was actually invented back in 1948 by Georges de Mestral. He noticed that the seeds of the cocklebur contained tiny hooks that enabled the seeds to cling to fur and clothing. He proceeded to develop a material containing similar hooks to use as a fastener. Although his product was patented in 1957, it took many years for technology to catch up so that velcro could be mass-produced inexpensively.

John Lawrence, the brother of LBNL founder Earnest Lawrence, founded the Donner Laboratory on the UC Berkeley campus in 1936. His goal was to useradioactive isotopesto treat human diseases such as cancer and hyperthyroidism. Donner Lab is now considered to be the birthplace ofnuclear medicine.

The Gray Zone

Artist's rendering of afusionpower plant

The distinction between basic and applied research isn't always clear. It sometimes depends on your perspective or point of view. According to Dr. Ashok Gadgil of LBNL, one way to look at it is to ask the following question: "How long will it be before some practical application results from the research?"

If a practical use is onlya few yearsaway, then the work can be defined as strictlyappliedresearch.
If a practical use is still 20-50 years away, then the work is somewhat applied and somewhat basic in nature.
If a practical usecannot be envisionedin the foreseeable future, then the work can be described as purelybasicresearch.

For example, for some time now, a fair amount of research has been underway on developingfusionreactors to provide a controlled energy source for cities. There is a clear applied goal to this work, yet there are so many technical obstacles to overcome that it may be another 30 to 50 years before we see a functionalfusion reactorin use. The development of fusion energy could be regarded as both basic and applied research.

Superconductivityis another research area that falls into this gray zone. Most conductors of electricity are not very efficient; some energy is lost as heat as the electricity passes through the (typically metallic) conductor. Superconductors are materials that lose little or no energy as electricity passes through them. However, the earliest superconductors had to be cooled withexpensiveliquid helium to temperatures below -269 �C to work properly. Newer materials have been developed in recent years that show superconductive properties at much warmer temperatures, requiring onlyinexpensiveliquid nitrogen to be sufficiently cooled.

Clearly, the development of new superconductive materials falls into the realm of basic research. However, if and when superconductive materials are developed that can be used as easily as copper wire, many important practical applications will soon follow, including providing electricity to cities much more efficiently.

Recent Trendsin Science Research

An artist's conception of LBNL's forthcoming
Human Genome CenterBuilding

There has been a noticeable shift inphilosophyregarding the types of research receiving federal funding in recent years. Universities get much of their money from theNational Science Foundation(NSF). Research at the Berkeley National Laboratory is funded primarily by theDepartment of Energy(DOE) and theNational Institutes of Health(NIH).

Congress has a strong influence on what types of research get funded, because it allocates money to these various federal agencies. Some members of Congress want to see less money given to basic research projects that probably will not lead to applied work for quite some time. This philosophy contributed to the demise of theSuper-Conducting Super Collider(SSC) project in Texas in 1993. At LBNL, funding was cut for two facilities that had played important roles in basic research in past years. TheHeavy Ion Linear Accelerator(HILAC) was responsible for allowing scientists to create many of the "heavy" (transuranic) elements, while theBevatronplayed a key role in nuclear medicine at the lab.

This shift in national priorities has greatly concerned many scientists. In fact, a group of 60 Nobel-prize winning researchers co-signed aletterthat was sent to President Clinton and every member of Congress.

Not all large-scale projects involving basic research have been cut. TheHuman Genome Projectis a long-term venture in which the entire set of humanchromosomes(genome) are being studied in two main ways. First, each chromosome is being chemically analyzed to determine the precise molecular sequence ofnucleotides(subunits) that form the genetic code inDNA. Secondly, each chromosome is being mapped out to determine the precise location of eachgenein the genome. However, in order to gain a better understanding of the nature of chromosomes, simpler forms of life (e.g., fruit flies, nematode worms, and yeast cells) have been extensively studied as part of the Human Genome Project. One ultimategoalof this ambitious program is to be able to cure genetically-caused illnesses such as Cystic Fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia through new medical techniques such as gene therapy.

Industrydoes little basic research today. Due to the competitive nature of the business world, commercial research tends to emphasize projects requiringless than 10 yearsto develop a new product or process. Businesses simply cannot afford to engage in long-term research projects. As a result,universitiesandgovernment laboratories(such as LBNL) are left with the responsibility to carry out basic research and long-term applied research.

There is quite a bit of applied research being conducted at LBNL today. TheEnergy and Environment Divisionspecializes in this type of work. (In fact, it was even renamed the Appled Sciences Division during the 1980's.) Recent work has included developing awater-purification systemusing ultra-violet radiation, studying how radon enters buildings, analyzing ozone pollution accumulation inside buildings, and designing energy-efficient building materials.

Another major project in recent years has been the construction and implementation of theAdvanced Light Source, a facility that allows scientists to use x-rays and ultraviolet waves to examine the structure of materials at the atomic level. Students interested in learning more about the ALS should visit LBNL's graphics-richMicroWorldspresentation.

There isadditional informationavailable about the current research philosophy at LBNL.

Possible Future Trendsin Basic and Applied Research

Logo for LBNL's
Center for Environmental Biotechnology

Mankind has become a dominant force in the shaping and manipulation of ourglobal environment. Many scientists are greatly concerned that, in the next 40 years, the population of our planet will increase so dramatically that the earth will no longer be able to support our current standard of living. As more and more countries become industrialized, the problems associated with this lifestyle -overuse of raw materials,energy consumption,pollution- will also increase. Scientists are worried that the planet will reach anunsustainablelevel of use.

Science research may be able to help solve these problems. This would require funding for long-term applied research - - research geared not toward creating products to help us compete with other industrialized nations, but rather research focused on sustainable use of our planet's resources.

Solving problems of global sustainability will probably require amulti-disciplinaryapproach, that is, teams of scientists from different research areas working together. Multi-disciplinary projects utilize theexpertiseof scientists in different fields (e.g., biology, geology, chemistry, and physics). It also opens new lines of communication among researchers. Joint research projects of this type are more likely toreceive fundingfrom federal agencies such as the Department of Energy, the National Institutes of Health, and the National Science Foundation. In fact, this approach isalready being usedat some research labs.

Applied Versus Basic Research

An Exercise in Understanding the Issues

This is arole-playing activityaimed at making clear some of the issue surrounding the basic versus applied research debate. As a means of preparing for this activity, ask students to readELSI modulesregarding basic versus applied research. Ask them to answer the exercise questions before beginning the role playing activity.

Scenario

The President has announced plans to fund a new program for scientific research. He wants to spend the money in the most efficient way to accomplish the following objectives:

Help thousands of laid-off automobile manufacturing workers find new jobs
Make U.S. products more competitive to sell in Eastern European countries which have cheap manufacturing labor
Help correct the U.S./Japan trade imbalance by selling new goods and services to Japan's citizens

The activity takes place in a town hall setting. The President has called the special interest groups listed below to give opinions and recommendations forgovernment policytoward andsponsorshipof basic and applied research.

The groups represent:

Presidents of companies- involved in research and development of products to sell. In order to keep their companies growing, they have to plan for new and better products. Their companies compete with similar industries abroad, including countries whose governments sponsor research and development. (For example, seeAT&T Bell Laboratories,Intel,Motorola,Chrysler,Ford,Mitsubishi.)
Scientists doing basic research- this group receives most of its money from government funds. The results of their research add to the knowledge and understanding of the world. This research does not produce new goods or services. Without it, however, applied scientists might not be able to develop new products and services in the future. (For example, see LBNL'sHuman Genome Center, JPL'sGalileo Project, NASA'sLunar Explorationprograms.)
Scientists doing applied research- this group receives funding from both industry and government. The products of its research change our lives and benefit business. These scientists help make the United States more competitive in the global marketplace. (For example, see LBNL'sAdvanced Light Source, LBNL'sBuilding Technologies Program,Genentech.)
Government employees- individuals charged with deciding how to spend the money the President and Congress put aside for research. They allocate funds for different areas of both basic and applied research that will best help meeting the above goals. (For example, seeNational Academy of Sciences,National Institutes of Health,National Science Foundation.)
Environmental groups- members are interested in solving environmental problems such as air, water, and land pollution. This group thinks moneys for both basic and applied research should be used to solve these problems first. They argue that, unless these issues are solved, the planet will not be able to sustain itself for future growth. (For example, seeEcoNet,The EcoSystem,"Our Environment",Save our Beaches,Sierra Club.)
Health care professionals- doctors, nurses, and other health care givers and researchers interested in solving serious health care issues, such as HIV and cancer. These problems cost millions of dollars in medical treatment. This group wants basic and applied research funds to be used to solve these problems first. They argue that effective prevention will free money now spent on health care for other purposes in the future. (For example, seeCenters for Disease Control,Mayo Clinic.)

Exercise

Students divide into teams. Each groupdevelops a positionabout basic versus applied research. In addition, teamsprepare recommendationsregarding continued funding for such research.Divide the responsibilityfor the presentation among all group members. Consider having each person within a group pick adifferentquestion from the following list: