Butcher, Chapter 3, Pp. 98-121; Ball, Chapter 5; Sartre Chapter 6; Millar, Part II

Cities

Bibliography:

Butcher, chapter 3, pp. 98-121; Ball, chapter 5; Sartre chapter 6; Millar, part II.

Cities central to the fabric of Roman power in the Near East.

Main types of settlement: polis and kome.

Provincial hierarchies: controlled by the Roman state. Titles: metropolis; colonia.

The Syrian ‘Tetrapolis’

Antioch, Seleucia of Pieria, Laodicea by the Sea, Apamea. Founded by Seleucus I between 301 and 299 BC. Antioch became the focus for Seleucid royal power. Became the leading city of Roman Syria. A suburb of Antioch, called Daphne, was renowned for its villas and wealthy patrons.

Seleucia

A port with an artificial harbour. Used by the Romans as a base for the Syrian fleet.

Apamea

Under the Seleucids it was a major military base; the ruins of the Roman city are extensive.

Laodicea

Also had an artificial harbour. A rival of Antioch in the competition for civic honours. It achieved colonial status at the end of the second century, under Septimius Severus.

Emesa

Probably the chief religious centre for the Emesenoi. Became a city by the second century AD, when it issued coins as a polis. It was a rival of Damascus. A late antique writer, Libanius, claimed that it was ‘no longer a city’ in his time, but other sources clearly show that it had a vibrant civic life.

Cyrrhus

A Hellenistic foundation which flourished in Roman times, now abandoned.

Chalcis

A very ancient settlement, perhaps the centre of a small principality from the first century BC to first century AD. First issued coins as a polis under Trajan (AD 98-117).

Beroea

A very ancient settlement, with a rectilinear street plan probably laid out by the Seleucids. Not much known about the Roman period city.

Hierapolis

A major cult centre, for the Syrian Goddess Atargatis and her male consort, Hadad. An important mustering-point for legions on eastern campaigns.

Commagene

Zeugma and Samosata on the Euphrates, both with twin settlements on both sides of the river. Zeugma, a legionary base, was sacked c. AD 252 by the Sasanians and never fully recovered.

Phoenician cities

Aradus

An offshore island, very powerful in Hellenistic times (independent of the Seleucids from 259 BC), but declined under Roman rule, eclipsed by its mainland dependency, Antaradus (modern Tartus).

Tripolis

Supposedly a foundation by the three cities of Aradus, Sidon and Tyre (hence the name) in Achaemenid times. Remained fairly unimportant under Roman rule, though it may have been a mint for imperial coinage in the C3.

Botrys

A small city, not much known.

Byblos

A very ancient settlement, powerful in the Bronze Age, declined in Hellenistic times. Revived under Roman rule.

Berytus

A minor Phoenician city, sacked in a Seleucid civil war in the 140s BC. Legionary veterans settled there under Augustus. Major investment under the Romans, and grew to be one of the major cities of Syria. Had a very large territory. Retained its Latin character, and became an important centre for teaching of Roman law in late antiquity. Had a rivalry with Tyre.

Sidon

An ancient Phoenician settlement, important in Achaemenid times. A major city in Hellenistic times, with a large territory, but somewhat overshadowed by its rival Tyre in the Roman period.

Tyre

The chief city of the Phoenician coast. Originally an offshore island like Aradus, but Alexander the Great built a mole out to it during his siege, which silted up, leaving it connected to the mainland. It too had extensive territory. It became the chief city of Syria Phoenice.

Ptolemais

Originally the Phoenician city of Akko, renamed Ptolemais under the Ptolemies. Functioned as a southern capital for Seleucid kings. Became a veteran colony under Claudius.

Central Syria

Heliopolis

Probably a cult centre for Ituraean Chalcis. Not clear when it attained civic status. Thought to have been a dependency of Berytus, despite having monumental buildings. It issued coins as a Roman colony under Septimius Severus, and may have acquired independent status then.

Damascus

Situated in dry territory east of the Antilebanon, watered by the Barada river (ancient Chrysoroas) which forms an oasis east of the city. Had a very large cult centre for a cult of Zeus / Jupiter. In the C4 was the chief city of the province of Libanensis.

Palmyra

The process of Palmyra’s absorption into the Roman empire is hard to trace. In 41 BC Mark Antony raided the city, so outside the empire then? By second century appears to be a fully-fledged city of the empire. Fortification walls of the third century enclosed only a part of the city.

Dura Europus

Founded by Seleucus I, on the Euphrates. Did not have monumental stone buildings. Outside the Roman empire until the 160s. Romans turned the northern part of the city into a military camp. Sacked by the Sasanians c. 256 and never recovered.

Philippopolis

A village in the northern part of the Hauran mountain, probably the birthplace of emperor Philip (AD 244-249), and given city status then.

Canatha

Early history until c1 BC obscure. C2 coins call it Gabinia.

Dionysias

A village of Canatha that gained civic status in the Antonine period.

Bostra

A Nabataean city, and a Roman legionary base. The emperor Philip may have been one of its patrons. It was sacked during the Palmyrene invasion, but remained an important city in late antiquity.

Gadara

A centre of Greek culture in Hellenistic times. Meleager. Captured by the Hasmonaeans. Freed by Pompey, who rebuilt it.

Philadelphia

Ptolemaic foundation at a settlement called Rabbat Amman. May not have been captured by the Hasmonaeans. A city of the ‘Decapolis’.

Gerasa

In Roman times claimed a foundation by Alexander, though no real evidence of this. Refounded as Antioch by an uncertain Seleucid king. A city of the ‘Decapolis’.

Scythopolis

A c3 BC Ptolemaic foundation. How it got its name ‘Scythopolis’ is unclear. By Roman period thought to have been founded by Dionysus, and the place where his nurse Nysa was buried: hence Nysa/Scythopolis. Listed as Decapolis city. Pagan inhabitants, Jews and Samaritans. By c4 solid Christian presence. Became capital of Palaestina II.

Tiberias

Founded c AD 20 by Antipas as a polis. Initially populated by non-Jews, but by 66 thought to be predominantly Jewish, because it supported the revolt. Surrendered to Vespasian in 67 and spared sacking. Although partly pagan (c2 temple) it became residence of Jewish patriarch and spiritual centre of Judaism in c2. Palestinian Talmud worked on here. Christian presence in late antiquity.

Sepphoris

An ancient settlement of Galilee. Revolted against the Romans after Herod’s death, and sacked by Syrian governor Varus. Rebuilt by Antipas. Sided w/ Romans during 1st revolt. In c2 changed name to Diocaesarea. C3 became important centre of Judaism, and by c5 strong Chrisian presence.

Sebaste

Samaria an important settlement in Iron Age. Alexander settled veterans there and in Hellenistic times seems to have been regarded as a polis. Destroyed by Hasmonaeans. Rebuilt by Gabinius, then refounded by Herod as Sebaste. Severus – colonia. Importance declined in late antiquity in competition with Neapolis.

Neapolis

Biblical Shechem. Abandoned by late c2 BC. Samaritans had an important cult centre on Mt Gerizim. AD 72/3 Vespasian founded Flavia Neapolis nearby. Temple on Mt Gerizim in c2. Punished by Severus. Colonia in c3. Christian and Samaritan inhabitants often in conflict. Important centre in early c6 Samaritan revolt.

Caesarea

Strato’s Tower thought to be c3 Ptolemaic foundation. May have been a polis. Declined in c1 BC – silting of harbour. Refounded by Herod as a major port, c. 20 BC. Polis w/ Greeks and Jews. Roman ‘capital’. Fights between Greeks and Jews during revolt, massacres of Jews. Colonial rank by Vesp. C3 important Jewish/Christian populations. By c4 Samaritans too – Samaritan revolts in c4 and c5.

Jerusalem

Capital and spiritual centre of Hasmonaean kingdom. Embellished with major buildings by Herod. Under the Romans lost some of its administrative importance to Caesarea, which was commonly used by the Prefect. Revolt – siege destroyed large parts. Afterwards, camp of Leg X, but otherwise seems to have been small and impoverished. Refounded by Hadrian col ael cap. Then 2nd revolt. Prohibition of Jews after, lasting until perhaps c4. Major centre of Christian pilgrimage. In c5 became seat of Patriarch (Juvenal). In early c7 sacked by Persians

Ascalon

Vast territory, and in c1 BC seems to have enjoyed some kind of semi-independent status as an ‘ally’ of Rome, although after Herod’s death Augustus gave it to Herod’s sister Salome. Mixed pagan / Jewish population led to massacres during 1st revolt. Flourishing port in late antiquity.

Gaza

Ancient Philistine city, destroyed by the Hasmonaeans, rebuilt by Gabinius on a new site inland. In Herod’s kingdom, then annexed to Syria. Destroyed by rebels in 1st revolt. Rebuilt after; in c3 became colonia. Centre of paganism in late antiquity; its port was Christian, and acquired status as a separate polis, Constantia, by Constantine. However Julian revoked this and it became known as Maiumas, but still had its own bishop.